Teachinghearts	The Wonderful Creation "Explore Science. Meet your Creator"	Statistics: Time: 500 minutes Print: 84 pages

Solar System	Atmosphere	The Weather
General Science	Camouflage	The Human Body
Nutrition	Water	Drugs and Alcohol

We will explore science from God's point of view. Beginning with nothing, each day of creation God created the next building block needed to make the rest of the universe.
On the first three days He created the containers needed to hold the systems. On the next three days He filled these places with life. On the final day, He started the social environment of love and community with a party.

1. Electromagnetism, physics and chemistry. God made light, atoms and molecules in our corner of the universe.
2. Space, earth and water. God created the three basic environments.
3. Geology and Botany. God separated the different environments and made the food supply.
4. Astronomy. God filled the sky.
5. Zoology (Fish and Birds). God filled the oceans and skies with life.
6. Biology (land animals and humans). God filled the land with life.
7. Spiritual, social and psychological foundations. God had a party to celebrate.

Science and Technology
Science has a way of finding what might be truth in the physical universe. This is called the scientific method. With every discovery made by one scientist, other scientists must be able to do the following:

1. Duplicate the experiment
2. Make a guess about what should happen if they change the experiment.

Evolution
The fact is, evolution is based upon an interpretation of some observations. However, the quality of specimens observed are few and in poor condition and the evidence on which they base their conclusions are subject to many other interpretations.
For example, the difference in skeleton size of related animals is taken as proof of evolution. However, the same evidence could be used to show that they are just relatives (like different types of cats) or that they are built according to the same design.
Evolution requires millions of years for the theories to work.
Because they can make correct guesses about the unknown, such as the existence of objects in space, it is not proof that the theory of evolution works - it is proof that the physical laws of the universe are stable. Creationism does not discount physical laws, in fact YHWH is a God of law and order. Creation only disputes some of the meanings, theories and conclusions scientists place on what they observe especially when they try to extrapolate back to the past to say when and how the object was formed and how it behaved.
For example, if you go to a new planet one can expect to find a force called gravity because the planet has mass. Confirming the existence of gravity does not prove how or when the planet was formed, it proves that the theory of gravity is reliable.

Creation
How God created the world. Creationists and evolutionists believe different things about how the universe started. Evolutionists rely on the scientific method. Creationists claim that the scientific method is not good enough. It cannot measure the past accurately and it cannot measure some things that we cannot see. And God is so great, we cannot even think of a way to measure Him.
As we look at the wonderful things God created, I will try to point out facts that point to a creator.

Proof

This symbol will appear whenever we want to suggest an argument in favor of creation.

With each system or creature that God created, we will offer some basic arguments for you to think about as "proof" that they did not evolve over billions of years. Our proofs are based on the following:

• Designer. The complexity and other coincidences related to the item indicated that a designer must have planned it.
• Time. Many critical processes and all biological systems require a very short development time for success, but evolution requires a long time.
• Impossibility. There is no chance that the event would occur.
• Scientific Observations. The process was observed in nature or in the laboratory and it totally contradicts the theory of evolution.
• Scientific Experiments. A theory or discovery was tested in the laboratory and it contradicts the theory of evolution.

The Plan of Salvation
Before the world was created, God also designed a Plan of Salvation to recreate us and bring peace between earth and heaven when man sinned. This plan was encoded in the design of the creation and follows rules and laws just like any fundamental principles of science.

The Foundations of the Universe

Creation Day 1 (Sunday)

In the beginning there was nothing in our region of the universe but darkness. Then God spoke and the power of His voice produced electromagnetic waves that were the basis of all created things. When He spoke there was light.

Physics: Explore a Tiny Universe

Physics

The study of the atoms and the basic laws of the universe that govern the relationship between different particles or bodies with mass.

Electromagnetic Spectrum
Sunlight is composed of a continuous stream of electromagnetic radiation. Those between 320-2000 nanometers reach the earth, while the short wavelengths below 320 are absorbed by ozone and the longer wavelengths above 2000 are absorbed by carbon dioxide, water vapor and ozone..

Absorbed by CO2, H2O, Ozone			Light Reaches Earth (2000-320 nanometers)									Absorbed by Ozone
Nonionizing Radiation											Ionizing Radiation
Long wavelength				Red	Orange	Yellow	Green	Blue	Indigo	Violet	Short wavelength
100km - 1mm	30cm-1mm	1mm-750		680	660	580	570	460	430	410	400 - 10		10 - .003	<0.003
Radio waves	Microwave	Infrared		Visible Light (700-400 nanometers)							Ultraviolet		X-Ray	Gamma
Ears (sound)	Skin (heat)			Eyes (light, colors)								Invisible
Radio phone TV	Oven	Camera		Television, camera							Medical, military equipment
None	COBE	Spitzer	Hubble Space Telescope (HST)									GALEX	Chandra	CGRO
Speed of Light. 186,287 miles / second (299,792 km) Speed of Sound in Air. 761 miles per hour (330 meters per second). Mach Number: Measures the shock wave generated by an object in relation to the speed of sound Mach 1 is the speed of sound.										Subsonic: < Mach 1 Transonic: 1 (Speed of sound) Supersonic: > Mach 1 Hypersonic: > Mach 5
Light Year. The distance that light travels in one year (5,878,625,373,183.61 miles) 9,460,730,472,580.8 Km. It takes 499 seconds for light to travel from the Sun to the Earth. 1 MHz (megahertz) = 300 meters. 1GHz (gigahertz) = 30 centimeters.
Physicist. Studies physics							Artist. Paints, sculpts, draws objects of beauty
Snooperscope. Instrument for viewing infrared radiation							Sonograph. Records and analyses sound

Electromagnetic waves are the basis of all matter. Depending on the wave length, it can either be seen, felt, heard or is totally invisible to the human senses. Long waves (like radio waves) have low energy and are very harmless. God created ears so that we could recognize them. Human beings have also created other equipment that can decode these waves.
The shortest, higher energy waves are gamma rays. They are harmful and the ozone layer helps to keep them from striking the earth.

Space Observatories

NASA's Four Great Space Observatories # Telescope Spectrum 1 Hubble Space Telescope HST Visible, UV, infrared 2 Compton Gamma Ray Telescope CGRO Gamma rays 3 Chandra X-ray Observatory CXO X-rays 4 Spitzer Space Telescope SST SIRTF Infrared A series of four space observatories designed to conduct astronomical studies over many different wavelengths (visible, gamma rays, X-rays, and infrared). Telescope Measures European Space Agency (ESA) Systems International Gamma-Ray Astrophysics Laboratory (INTEGRAL) X-Ray, Gamma Swift Gamma Ray Burst Mission UV, X-Ray, Gamma X-ray Multi-Mirror Mission (XMM-Newton) X-Ray Other Observatories and Satellites Galaxy Evolution Explorer (GALEX) Ultraviolet IMAGE Solar wind Wilkenson Microwave Anisotropy Probe (WMAP) Temperature fluctuations in the microwave background Gamma Ray Large Area Space Telescope (GLAST) Dark matter, black holes, neutron star Solar and Heliospheric Observatory (SOHO) Solar storms

Humans have used the electromagnetic spectrum to invent all sorts of wireless communications applications. We send and receive information with signals using frequencies that cannot be interpreted by the eyes and ears. But the receivers can interpret these signals and convert them to frequencies that the human eye and ear can interpret.

Radio Waves. Radio waves are not as harmful to humans as other parts of the spectrum, but they have certain properties that make them ideal for transmitting information.

• Extremely Low Frequency (ELF) (30 Hz - 300 Hz).
• Ultra Low Frequency (ULF) (300 Hz - 3000 Hz).
• Very Low Frequency (VLF) (3 KHz - 30 KHz).
• Low Frequency (LF) (30 KHz - 300 KHz).
• Medium Frequency (MF) (300 KHz - 3 MHz).
• Medium Wave (500 KHz - 3 MHz). Travel for hundreds of miles and are perfect for AM radio.
• Short Wave (3 MHz - 30 MHz). Travel for thousands of miles, are reflected back from the ionosphere and are perfect for international radio stations.
• Very High Frequency Wave (VHF) (30 MHz - 300 MHz). Travel short distances.
  Ultra High Frequency Wave (UHF) (300 MHz - 900 MHz). Travel short distances.
  Both these frequencies are perfect for local communications used for FM radio and television stations. This ensures that frequencies can be reused by the same network in different areas without interference, while providing programming for the local audience.
• Super High Frequency Wave (SHF) (3000 MHz - 30000 MHz). Used for satellite communications. They are not impeded by the earth's ionosphere but travel along a line of sight and are affected by the weather.

Consumer Appliances. Engineers have divided up the frequencies of the radio wave and microwave spectrum into different channels for sending and receiving signals in consumer applications. They operate like one way private roads. A broadcaster can send signals to a receiver along this private electromagnetic highway on one channel (lane) and receive signals along another channel. The receiver translates the signals to pictures, sound, text or instructions. e.g. radio, television, phone, garage door opener.

Law and Order. We explored the application of the radio spectrum to demonstrate the creative power of law and order and organization. Marconi harnessed the potential of these waves when he realized that he could use them to transmit language. But if standards were not set about the use of these frequencies there would be interference and chaos and we could not have proceeded as far as we have done in making consumer applications that improve our daily lives. It took a leap in thinking to realize that one can harness the power of electromagnetic waves and it took rules to make them work better by setting boundaries. And it took a naming and identification system to further increase the capabilities. e.g. Boundaries allow us to broadcast on walkie-talkies without interference, but personal identification allows us to make private phone calls.
In the same way God set strict standards of behavior between human beings, without these there would be chaos and mistrust. The laws of God do not take away our freedoms. The laws of God create an environment where we can make great leaps forward to increase freedoms which make our lives much more happy and convenient. With these we can advance to a greater potential that is beyond our imagination. So if we embrace the basics of honesty, generosity, respect, contentment and faithfulness we can discover powers from God that we never thought were possible. God also gave names to each of His creation, setting up the possibility of personal communication.
So love can change things. Hope can see a future. Faith can also move mountains by talking to the personal God named YHWH.

The Composition of Matter. For years scientists believed that the electrons, protons and neutrons in the atom were the smallest objects in the universe. Now the Standard Model of Physics says that everything (all matter and radiation) in the universe is made up of 12 basic particles and 3 basic forces. These are six quarks and six leptons. Quarks are sociable particles and tend to exist in groups. Leptons are solitary and only pair up with a neutrino.

Quark				Lepton
Name		Charge	Description	Name		Charge
1	Up Quark	+2/3	Proton (positive charge) is 2 up and 1 down quark	1	Electron	Negative charge
2	Down Quark	-1/3	Neutron (no charge) is 1 up and two down quarks	2	Muon
3	Strange Quark	-1/3	Particles with an energy conservation property that allows them to live longer than expected. Lambda particle. It is made from an up, down and strange quark.	3	Tau
4	Charm Quark	+2/3	-	4	Electron neutrino	No charge (Antimatter)
5	Bottom Quark	-1/3	-	5	Muon neutrino
6	Top Quark	+2/3	Heaviest quark	6	Tau neutrino
Personalities. Two basic divisions of the personalities are intraverts and extraverts. Some of us are quarks (extraverts) who love to socialize and some are leptons (intraverts). Trinity. There are three basic forces that hold the universe together. 12 Nations. God divided the righteous nation into twelve tribes. Creation. Did you know that over 3500 years ago Moses described a mathematical model of the objects and their relationships in the periodic table and the elements of particle physics in the Torah?

Quarks are subatomic particles bound together by the strong atomic force. They make protons and neutrons which combine with electrons to form atoms which are the most common building blocks of life. Atoms combine to create molecules, proteins, DNA, cells and biological systems. Leptons respond to the weak force, not the strong force.

» Bosons. There are four fundamental forces which hold the fundamental particles together.

• Gluon (Strong Force). A particle that transmits the strong nuclear force which glues quarks together into protons and neutrons. It is only found in the nucleus.
• Photon (Electromagnetic Force). Hold particles together in the atom.
• Weak Force. Allows radioactive decay and holds protons and neutron in the nucleus and electrons in their orbits.
• Graviton. A hypothetical particle that causes the effects of gravity.

Atoms. One of the smallest items in the universe is an atom. Over 100 atoms have been discovered and the smallest of these is hydrogen.
An atom is made up of a nucleus in the center, inside the nucleus are protons and neutrons. Circling the nucleus in orbit is the electron. The electron has a negative charge, the proton is positive and the neutron has no charge.

Light. Light is the visible part of the electromagnetic waves. These are made by photons. Photons are released when electrons move from one orbit to another.

Color. White light from the sun is made up of many colors. Seeing these colors depends on what the object does to the light that reaches it. The color of the object we see is the color of the light it reflects because the eye recognizes the primary colors of light. We see color by two methods:

• Subtraction. The object absorbs some color or subtracts it from the light and reflects the other colors that we see. This is how color pigments like paint and crayon work. Cyan absorbs red. Yellow absorbs blue. Magenta absorbs green.
• Addition. Color is created by adding the different colors of light. All other colors are absorbed. The combination of all colors is white because no light is absorbed. When all light is absorbed the color we see is black. Black objects should also be hotter because when they absorb light they are absorbing energy.

  Color Reflects Absorbs Red Red Blue, green Cyan Blue Blue Red, green Yellow Green Green Red, blue Magenta Cyan Blue, green Red Red Yellow Red, green Blue Blue Magenta Red, blue Green Green White Red, blue, green - Black Black - Red, blue, green White Brown Red, green Blue, some red and green Color science is used to illustrate salvation laws

Primary Colors. In all color schemes it takes three primary colors to make all colors. But primary colors cannot be formed by mixing other colors. How color is made depends on the color system or whether we are using pigments or light.

• Light (Additive Color)
  Red, green and blue are the primary colors of light. Mixing any two or more colors gives a brighter color or more light. Red and blue make magenta (light purple). Green and red make yellow. Green and blue make cyan (light blue). White is the combination of all colors of light. Black is the absence of all light.
  
  

  Red Yellow Green Cyan Blue Magenta Red White

• Pigments (Subtractive Color)
  Red, blue and yellow are the three classic primary colors. They are used to make secondary colors. Red and yellow make orange. Blue and yellow make green. Red and blue make purple. White is the combination of all colors. Black is the absence of all colors.

  Red Orange Yellow Green Blue Purple Red White

• Paints, inks, dyes (Subtractive Color)
  Cyan, magenta and yellow are the three primary colors. Cyan and magenta make blue. Cyan and yellow make green. Magenta and yellow make red.

  Yellow Green Cyan Blue Magenta Red Yellow Black

The additive and subtractive color systems are related. Two primary colors from one system creates a primary color in the other system. This is the combination of both.

White Yellow Green Cyan Blue Magenta Red Yellow Green Black

Color Wheel. An arrangement of colors in a circle.

Red Yellow Green Cyan Blue Magenta

Complementary Color. Colors directly opposite each other on the color wheel.
Mixing two different complementary colors of light gives white light. If a color is absorbed, what your eye will see is the complementary color, which will be a mixture of all the light that is not absorbed.

Prism. A prism is a three dimensional glass pyramid that separates white light into its component colors to form a rainbow. White light enters the prism and each color bends at a different angle, separating the colors. Different objects bend light at a different angle. So when light travels from air through glass or water the light exits at a different angle.
Rainbow. A rainbow is caused when white light is broken up into its component colors as it passes from the air through water droplets which act like a prism. The classic colors of the rainbow are red, orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo and violet.

White Red Orange Yellow Green Blue Indigo Violet Black

See how the eye processes color and the problems that result in color deficiency.

Imagine

Our visible light is a fairly narrow frequency band. Suppose God and the angels have the ability to operate at other frequencies so that we can not see them. God said that He has to separate Himself from us physically because close contact would destroy us. Do you suppose God normally operates above the gamma ray frequencies? Suppose He can change frequencies at will so that He can be visible and invisible as He chooses?

What do you think?

Since God created the sun, moon and stars on the fourth day, the light that he made on the first day may have been caused by photons. But since God is a source of light, his presence may have caused the light. However, the universe is bathed in at least two other kinds of energy and it has a microwave background radiation. Are these or the microwave radiation the source of light on the first day? If so, then we have lost the ability to detect this energy with our eyes. God made us partially blind.

Did you know that God used the science of color combination to illustrate the Plan of Salvation? He will take us from darkness to light through the Word. The Word He spoke to implement the plan was Jesus Christ. He was also the One Who created the world and He will recreate it again.

Atom Cell Solar System Galaxy Family System Center Orbit Force Atom Nucleus Electrons Strong Cell Nucleus Organelles Electromagnetic Solar System Star Planets Gravity Galaxy Nucleus Solar system Gravity Family Mother and Father Children Love Life God Creation Love Designer The fact that solar systems, galaxies and cells follow this structure points to a designer. Each has a central core which is encircled by other bodies in orbit. You would not expect such order from random events.

Forces of Attraction
Different types of forces are used to hold different systems together:

1. Strong force. Also called the nuclear force, it holds the nucleus of an atom together against the strong forces of repulsion from the protons.
2. Weak force. The weak force holds protons and neutrons in the nucleus.
3. Electromagnetic force. Holds several atoms together when they create a molecule.
4. Gravity. Is the weakest force. It holds large objects together. It keeps the planets in orbit and it keeps you from flying off the earth.
5. Love. Holds people and intelligent life together. It is the character that is most like Him that God is trying to teach us.
   The Bible simply says that "God is Love".

Electricity
Electricity is produced when the atoms produce a flow of electrons in one direction.

Magnets
A magnetic force is created in another direction when an electrical force is turned on.

Chemistry: Atoms and Molecules

Chemistry

The process of combining atoms to form new solids, liquids and gases.

One of the most important things in chemistry is the periodic table of elements. It helps us to know how the elements will react.
Two or more atoms form a molecule. Knowing how these will react is the study of Chemistry.

Designer

Stereochemistry. Did you know that complex molecules can have a mirror image twin. They look the same and react the same in simple experiments. Yet the body is able to recognize them because they are oriented in the wrong direction. It is like trying to put a left handed glove on the right hand. The body uses the left handed versions while laboratory chemical reaction always produces the right handed version. When we die, these chemicals change to the right hand versions.

So how did random chemical reactions in nature consistently produce thousands of impossible compounds needed for life?

Biological systems are made from very complicated chemical reactions involving millions of chemicals and large molecules with many atoms. These systems are so complex and specific that a malfunction of any one chemical in millions can damage the creature.
The most important molecule is water. It is made from two hydrogen and one oxygen atom (H₂O).
Some rare elements are expensive (gold (Au), silver (Ag), Copper (Cu) and Platinum (Pt)). They are used to make jewelry and coins.
Other elements like Uranium (U) are precious because they are needed for nuclear weapons.

Atoms and Molecules
Periodic Law: When elements (atoms) are arranged in order of increasing atomic weight their properties are repeated periodically.
The periodic table is divided into 7 rows called "periods" and 18 columns called "groups or families". Groups or Families. Columns of elements that are related by the number of valence electrons in their outer shell. There are three grouping systems.

• New IUPAC. Numbers the families from 1 to 18.
• Old IUPAC (Europe). "S" and "P" are numbered 1A-8A. "D" and "F" and numbered 1B-8B.
• CAS (North America). Numbered 1A-8A and 1B-8B.

a	1	2	3		4	5	6	7	8	9	10	11	12	13	14	15	16	17	18
b	1A	2A	3B		4B	5B	6B	7B	8			1B	2B	3A	4A	5A	6A	7A	8A
c	1A	2A	3A		4A	5A	6A	7A	8A			1B	2B	3B	4B	5B	6B	7B	8B
-	+1	+2	+3		(2-4)	(2-5)	(2-6)	(2-7)	+2 or +3			(1-2)	2	+3	±4	-3	-2	-1	0
-	S Block		F	D Block (Transition Elements)										P Block
1	1 H 1.008	The Periodic Table of Elements																	2 He 4.003
2	3 Li 6.941	4 Be 9.012	Key 1 Atomic number. Number of protons or electrons H Symbol for the element. This is Hydrogen. 1.008 Atomic weight.											5 B 10.81	6 C 12.01	7 N 14.01	8 O 16.00	9 F 19.00	10 Ne 20.18
3	11 Na 22.99	12 Mg 24.31												13 Al 26.98	14 Si 28.09	15 P 30.97	16 S 32.06	17 Cl 35.45	18 Ar 39.95
4	19 K 39.10	20 Ca 40.08	21 Sc 44.96		22 Ti 47.88	23 V 50.94	24 Cr 52.00	25 Mn 54.94	26 Fe 55.85	27 Co 58.93	28 Ni 58.70	29 Cu 63.55	30 Zn 65.38	31 Ga 69.72	32 Ge 72.59	33 As 74.92	34 Se 78.96	35 Br 79.90	36 Kr 83.80
5	37 Rb 85.47	38 Sr 87.62	39 Y 88.91		40 Zr 91.22	41 Nb 92.91	42 Mo 95.94	43 Tc 97.90	44 Ru 101.1	45 Rh 102.9	46 Pd 106.4	47 Ag 107.9	48 Cd 112.4	49 In 114.8	50 Sn 118.7	51 Sb 121.8	52 Te 127.6	53 I 126.9	54 Xe 131.3
6	55 Cs 132.9	56 Ba 137.3		71 Lu 175	72 Hf 178.5	73 Ta 180.9	74 W 183.9	75 Re 186.2	76 Os 190.2	77 Ir 192.2	78 Pt 195.1	79 Au 197.0	80 Hg 200.6	81 Tl 204.4	82 Pb 207.2	83 Bi 209.0	84 Po 209	85 At 210	86 Rn 222
7	87 Fr 223	88 Ra 226		103 Lr 262	104 Rf 261	105 Db 262	106 Sg 263	107 Bh 262	108 Hs 265	109 Mt 266	110 Ds 269	111 Rg 272	112 Uub 277	113 Uut 284	114 Uuq 289	115 Uup 288	116 Uuh 292	117 Uus	118 Uuo 293
Lanthanide (Magnetic)			6	57 La 138.9	58 Ce 140.1	59 Pr 140.9	60 Nd 144.2	61 Pm 145	62 Sm 150.4	63 Eu 152.0	64 Gd 157.3	65 Tb 158.9	66 Dy 162.5	67 Ho 164.9	68 Er 167.3	69 Tm 168.9	70 Yb 173.0	F Block
Actinide			7	89 Ac 227	90 Th 232	91 Pa 231	92 U 238	93 Np 237	94 Pu 244	95 Am 243	96 Cm 247	97 Bk 247	98 Cf 251	99 Es 252	100 Fm 257	101 Md 258	102 No 259
Color Key				Box		Metals			Metalloid		Non-Metals			Lanthanide			Actinide
				Text		Solid					Gas	Liquid		Life Elements			Precious Metals
Metals Alkali Metals React readily with non-metals Alkaline Earth Alkaline Transitional Less reactive and rare earth metals » Lanthanide Rare earth. Form magnetic alloys » Actinide Rare earth, radioactive, dense metals Non-Metals Noble Gas The noble gases are relatively inert Halogens Reactive nonmetals which have seven valence electrons Non-Metals Many are gases and liquids Metalloids Semi metals with characteristics of metals and non-metals Metals: They are located on the left side of the table. They are solids at room temperature (except mercury). Non-Metals: The nonmetals are located on the upper right side of the periodic table Transition Elements: These are defined as those that have partially filled "d" orbitals either in the element or any of its compounds. These partially filled "d" orbitals are responsible for the color generating property of the transition elements. Rare Earth Elements (Metals). They are special transition metals. Life Elements. These are necessary for living systems and have important cycles to replenish them. The Sanctuary Chemistry. A pattern of the structure of the periodic table is in the sanctuary that Moses built.
Group Outer Shell Characteristic Shell Orbit Electrons Block S 1 2 2 Metal P 3 6 8 Non-metal D 5 10 18 Transition F 7 14 32 Rare earth G 9 18 50 Theoretical A shell has a fixed number of orbits, each has two electrons. Shells fill in this order (2, 8, 8, 18, 18, 32, 32):   1S   2S   2P 3S   3P 4S   3D 4P 5S   4D 5P 6S 4F 5D 6P 7S 5F 6D 7P   1s2 2s2, 2p6 3s2, 3p6 4s2, 3d10, 4p6 5s2, 4d10, 5p6 6s2, 4f14, 5d10, 6p6 7s2, 5f14, 6d10, 7p6 S 1A +1 s1 Alkali metals give up one electron 2A +2 s2 Alkaline earth metals D 3A-2B Transition metals with valence electrons in two shells instead of one » 3A +3 4s23d1 Scandium » 4A +2-4 4s23d2 Titanium » 5A +2-5 4s23d3 Vanadium » 6A +2-6 4s23d5 Chromium » 7A +2-7 4s23d5 Manganese » 8A +2-3 4s23d6-8 Iron (4s23d6), cobalt (4s23d7), nickel (4s23d8) » 1B +1-2 3d104s1 Copper. This is the coinage metals group » 2B +2 3d104s2 Zinc P 3B +3 s2p1 The Boron group, earth metals, whistogens 4B ±4 s2p2 The Carbon group are the least reactive. They share 4 electrons 5B -3 s2p3 The Nitrogen Group, Pnicogens or pnictogens. Phosphorous makes fertilizer, bones 6B -2 s2p4 Chalcogens. The acid formers 7B -1 s2p5 Halogens. They are salt formers that take one electron 8B 0 s2p6 Noble gases. Their valence shells are full. Helium has 2, the rest 8 F » 3A +3 4d105p66s24f14 Lanthanides. Very reactive metals with magnetic properties that fill the 4f orbital » 3A- +3 5d106p67s25f14 Actinides. Very reactive metals with radioactive properties that fill the 5f orbital 3A: (Np Pi Am Cm Bk) 4A: Th 5A: Pa 6A: U G 8s25g186f147d10 Element 121-138. These have never been synthesized and may be too unstable Periods. These are the seven rows. They have the same number of electron shells. Electrons. The number of electrons orbit the nucleus are equal to the atomic number. Group (New IUPAC Number). Number of electrons in the outer shells. Block. Orbiting shell. Shell. The electrons orbit singly or in pairs in different levels called shells. They are named by a series of four letters, "S", "P", "D", and "F". By looking at the periodic table you can tell which type of orbit is probably in the outermost valence shell. Metals are in the "S" block, transition metals are in the "D" block, non-metals are in the "P" block and the rare earth elements are in the "F" block. These shells are filled according to rules. Electrons fill orbits of lower energy first. Pauli Exclusion Principle. Two electrons in the same orbit must have opposite spins. Hund's Rule. Electrons fill empty orbits before pairing up. Octet Rule. Atoms become especially stable when their valence shells are full. They tend to want 8 electrons in their outer shell and they will gain, share or lose electrons to complete this octet. Those with less than 4 lose their electrons, those with 4 share electrons and those greater than 4 tend to gain electrons to complete the octet. Valence Shell. The outermost "s" and "p" orbit shells of an atom or the "d" shells in transition metals. It determines how atoms behave in a reaction. Here, electrons are gained, shared or lost to form chemical bonds because the elements are trying to achieve a status in which their shells are complete. Elements with the same number of valence electrons have the same properties. Each element has a number of valence electrons equal to its group number. Transition Elements. The transition metals are the only elements that fill the "d" orbitals. They have the same arrangement of outer electrons, but the lower "3d" orbitals are different. The ten "3d" orbitals are filled before the lower "s" orbital.
Gold Standards: 24 carat (karat) gold is 99.99% pure gold. 22 carat gold is 91.6% pure gold. 12 carat is 50% gold.
Silver Standards: Fine silver is 99.9% silver. Britannia (95.84% silver and 4.16% copper). Mexican (95% silver and 5% copper). Sterling (92.5% silver and 7.5% copper). Coin silver (90% silver and 10% copper).
Other precious metals: Platinum, ruthenium, rhodium, palladium, osmium, iridium. Radioactive : Plutonium, uranium.
Metal Alloys: Mixture of metals that increases their hardness and durability. Brass is a mixture of copper and Zinc. Bronze is a mixture of copper and tin. Iron. There are three basic grades of iron with varying degrees of brittleness and hardness.   • Pig Iron. Hard, brittle, raw iron with about 3.5% carbon made by melting iron ore with limestone and coke.     Iron (90% or more), carbon (4-5%), manganese, sulfur, phosphorus, and silicon (roughly 3% in total).   • Wrought Iron. This is a softer, pure iron with about 0.15% carbon and some impurities.   • Cast Iron. Purified pig iron. 95% iron, 2.1-4% carbon and 1-3% silicon. Steel is a mixture of iron and up to 5.1% carbon. Stainless steel also includes chromium and nickel.
Chemist. Creates or applies chemicals for treating various systems such as drinking water, manufacturing. Forensic Chemist. Crime scene investigation by analyzing chemical compounds. Pharmacist. Dispenses drugs for health care. Pyrotechnics. The science and art of making fireworks.

Temperature is generated by the movement of atoms. Absolute Zero (0ºK) (-459.67ºF and -273.15ºC) is the temperature when no molecular activity occurs and the volume of the "perfect gas" vanishes.

Experiment

Bake a cake. The air bubbles that are released when the baking powder reacts with the flour causes the cake to rise. Cooking is chemistry.

Color
Color can be caused by many different interactions of light or heat with different elements. Metal ions, oxides, sulfides, halides and chlorides of metals and organic compounds are used as coloring agents. Metal oxides are generally used in glass and metal chlorides in fireworks.
The transition metals tend to be coloring elements because the electrons in their outer "d" orbit absorb light to move from one orbit to another.

• Idiochromatic ("Self-colored"). The chemical composition of the material.
• Allochromatic ("Other-colored"). Impurities, defects or substition of an element.
• Pseudochromatic ("False color"). Color is caused by the crystal structure. e.g. Water or trapped air can act like a prism.
• Conjugated Bonds. Large molecules, especially of carbon rings joined with nitrogen and oxygen, share electrons in single and double bonds. These shared electrons are more sensitive to light. e.g. Organic dyes, pigments, most plant and animal colors, chlorophyl, blood, lapis lazuli, fabric brighteners, fireflies.
  Metalo-Organic Compounds. Three very important compounds are used to transport oxygen in various living systems. The colors of these compounds are associated with the metal they contain.
  • Hemoglobin (Fe). Transports oxygens in animals. It is bright red when it carries oxygen and dark red when it is not.
    » Myoglobin (Fe). Stores oxygen in muscle, not transports it. Has red or dark grey color.
    » Hemerythrin (Fe-O-Fe). Oxygen transport in sipunculids, brachiopods, priapulids and annelids. It gives a pink or violet color when oxygenated and clear when it is not.
    » Leghemoglobin (Fe). Binds oxygen to protect nitrogen fixing bacteria in the roots of legumes.
  • Hemocyanin (Cu). The second most common oxygen transporting protein found in nature. It is in the blood of arthropods (insects, spiders, crustaceans) and molluscs. It is pale yellow when not combined with oxygen, and blue when combined with oxygen.
  • Chlorophyll (Mg). A green compound involved in the process of photosynthesis.
  • Vanabins (V). In the blood of sea squirts may be the oxygen carriers.
  • Pinnaglobin (Mn). Brown color. Only seen in the mollusk Pinna squamosa.

Color	Crystals		Glass	Fireworks	Artificial Organic	Natural Organic
Red	Cr3+, Mn3+, Mn2+	Cd	Au, Cu, Se	Sr, Li	C20H6I4Na2O5H20 Erythrosine (Red 3)	Lycopene (C40H56) Betalains (beets)
Pink	Mn2+, Ti4+	Mn, Li	Se, Co + borosilicates	-
Pink-Orange	-	Mn	-	-	C18H14N2Na2O8S2 Allura Red (Red 40)	C2952H4664N812O832S8Fe4 Hemoglobin Phaeomelanin
Reddish Brown	Fe2+, Co2+	-	-	-
Brown	Fe2+, Ce3+ Pr3+ Nd3+	V, Fe	Carbon oxides, Iron oxides, S	-	C17H18N4Na2O9S2 (Brown 3)	Tannin (C76H52O46) Melanin, Eumelanin
Orange	Fe3+, Ce3+ Pr3+ Nd3+	Cd	Se	Ca	C16H10N2O7S2Na2 Acid orange (Orange G)	Carotene (C40H56) Crocine (C44H64O24) saffron
Amber	Fe3+	-	Carbon oxides, Fe, S	-	C16H9N4 Na3O9S2 Tartrazine (Yellow 5)	Lipofuscin (C42H58NO)
Gold	-	-	-	Fe, C	C18H9N Na2O8S2 Quinoline (Yellow 13)	Lutein (C40H56O2)
Yellow	Fe3+,Fe2+,Ni2+, UO22+	N,V,Cd,As	Se, Pb + Sb	Na
Yellow Green	Mn2+	Zn, Ni, Cd	Uranium	-	C37H34N2O10S3Na2 Fast Green FCF (Green 3)	C55H72O5N4Mg Chlorophyll
Green	Cr3+, Mn3+, V3+, Ni2+, Cu2+, Fe2+	Cd, Li, Be	Cu, Iron oxide, Co + iodides	Cu, Ba
Forest Green		-	Cr, Fe	-	C27H25N2NaO7S2 Food Green S (Green 4)
Olive Green	Ti4+	-	-	-
Blue	Cu2+, Fe2+, Fe3+, VO2+, Ti3+		Cu	-	C37H34N2Na2O9S3 Brilliant Blue (Blue 1)	Hemocyanin
Blue	U4+, Co2+	Cu, Ti, Be	Copper oxide	Cu
Dark Blue	-	S	Cobalt oxide	-	C16H10N2O2 Indigo Blue	Anthocyanins (C15H8O6-sugar) (cyanidin)
Purple	Fe3+	Fe	Mn oxide	K, Sr+Cu	-	Anthocyanins (C15H9O6-sugar) (cyanidin)
Silver	-	-	-	Al, Mg, Ti	-
Black	-	Iron oxide	Mn + Co + Fe	-	C28H17N5Na4O14S4	Hemerythrin
White	-	Titanium	Sb, Sn	Mg, Al, Ba	TiO2
Isomers (Twins). Carotene and lycopene have the same chemical formula, but a different structure. Stereoisomers (Chemical Identical Twins). Same formula and structure but mirror images						Plant Source. Animal Source

Autumn Leaves.

	Chlorophyll
	Anthocyanin
	Anthocyanins + Carotenoids
	Carotenoids
	Tannin

The colors of autumn leaves are due to changing concentrations of many chemicals. Decreasing light levels in autumn causes chlorophyll production to slow and other pigments emerge in this order as the green color fades.

Chlorophyll. It gives a green color and masks all other pigment colors.
Anthocyanin. Sugar concentration increases and anthocyanin production increases, giving the leaves a pink, red, blue or purple color.
Carotenoids. Carotenoids and xanthophyll give the leaves a yellow color and a mixture of carotenoids and anthocyanin gives an orange color.
Tannins. They give a brown color. When the major pigments are absent other chemicals affect leaf color.

Iris	Pink	Violet		Grey	Blue			Green	Amber	Hazel		Brown	Black
Front	No Pigment					Lipofuscin					Melanin
Back	Blood		No Pigment			Melanin

Eye Color. Eye color is a complex interaction of at least two genes and the concentration of pigments on the front and back surface of the iris and the natural grey color of the iris and the size and spacing of the fibers in the eye. Genes also create the flecks, specks and rings that dot the eyes.
Melanin, a brown pigment which is controlled by the brown-blue gene on chromosome 15 and the green-blue gene on chromosome 19, is mainly responsible for the range in eye color.
Lipofuscin, a yellow pigment produced by aging, is responsible for green and amber eyes. The natural color of the iris and the blood vessels at the back of the eye also contribute to the color.

• Grey. No melanin, the natural color of the iris tissue.
• Violet and Pink. No melanin, the natural color of the iris tissue and the red blood vessels.
• Blue. Little lipofuscin and little to no melanin.
• Green. Some melanin and a lot of lipofuscin. These eyes can look golden.
• Amber. High concentration of lipofuscin.
• Hazel. A mixture of pigments in several parts of the eye.
• Brown. High concentration of melanin.
• Dark Brown - Black. Highest concentration of melanin, probably on both surfaces of the iris.

Hair and Skin Color. Human skin color is due to melanin, but hair color is due to Eumelanin for black and brown colors and Phaeomelanin for red and yellow colors. The low concentration or absence of either pigment causes gray or white hair.
Birds. Feather color is due to the structure of the feathers and the pigments. There are four types of pigments:

• Melanin. (Brown, black, gray, yellows).
• Porphyrins. A rare pigment creates green.
• Psittacins. (Red, orange, yellow).
• Carotenoids. (Red, orange, yellow).
  Flamingos are born white, but the carotenoids in their diet of algae and small fish gives them the pink color.

Fish. Color is achieved by the pigment cells and how many layers of skin in which they occur. These four chromatophores are melanin (black), xanthin (yellow), lipochrome (orange), and erythrin (red).

Imagine

Will our skin, hair and eye color change with our emotions or at our will?

Air, Land and Water

Creation Day 2 (Monday)

On the second day God separated the land and the sky from the water, creating the sky, the sea and the earth.

Layer	Details	Deep space
Exosphere	New Jerusalem 1500 miles (2400)
	1000 miles (1600)
	800 miles (1286)
Ionosphere	400 miles (643 Km)
	380 miles (610 Km) Hubble Telescope
	200 miles (320 Km) Space station
	Aurora Borealis Space shuttle 150 miles (241 Km)
Thermosphere	60 miles (97 Km)
Mesosphere	50 miles (80 Km)
Stratosphere	31 miles (50 Km)
	Ozone (15-20 km)
Tropopause
Troposphere	11 miles (18 km)
	Weather, clouds
	People
Earth
Lithosphere (Crust)	Surface to 200 m	Euphotic sea
	200 m to 1500 m	Bathyal zone
	1500 m to floor	Abyssal zone
Asthenosphere	200-300 km	Mantle
Mesosphere	650-2890 km	Mantle
Core	2890-6370 km	Iron
Astronaut. Travels to outer space. Pilot. Operates an airplane.
Altimeter. Measures altitude (height).

Atmosphere
The air is made up of several layers.

1. Magnetosphere. A highly magnetized and radioactive region above the ionosphere up to 70,000 km (10 earth radii). Within this space are the Van Allen radiation belts.
2. Exosphere. Above 800 miles (1286 km). Geostationary satellites orbit Earth at 22,264 miles (35,790 km).
3. Ionosphere. Any level above 20 miles (32 km) in which there are charged particles. It is in the mesosphere and thermosphere.
   • Aurora. The Aurora Borealis (Northern Lights) occurs above 50 miles (80 km) because of the charged particles in the Ionosphere.
   • Space Shuttle. The space shuttle files about 150 miles (241 km) above the earth. It takes about 46 hours for the shuttle to reach the space station travelling at 17580 mph (28287 kph) in orbit and 4973 mph (8002 kph) during launch.
   • Space Station. The space station is about 200 miles (322 km) up.
   • New Jerusalem. Contrast this to the city of the New Jerusalem which is 1500 miles high (2400 km). Some sources say 375 miles high (603 km). Whichever is correct it is a very big city that can reach far beyond the space station.
   The official orbit height for a vehicle is 328,000 feet (100 Km).
4. Thermosphere. 50 - 60 miles (80-97 km)
5. Mesosphere. 35 to 50 miles (56-80 km) is the coldest layer.
6. Stratosphere. From 10 to 35 miles (16-56 km). The ozone layer is in this zone between 9.5 to 12.5 miles (15 to 20 km). It protects us from ultraviolet radiation from the sun.
7. Troposphere. The lowest level extends 11 miles (18 km) in the air. All weather activities occur here.

	Region
	Arctic
	Polar
	35º-65º
	25º-35º
	25º
	Equator
	5º-30º
	25º
	25º-35º
	35º-65º
	Polar
	Antarctic

Weather
Our weather is affected by the large amount of water exposed to the heat from the sun. Warm air rises and cold air falls, causing a cycle of flowing air. The combination of air mass, pressure, the flow of air, moisture from the oceans and lakes and ocean temperature creates our global weather patterns.

Air Mass.

Region	Water	Air Flow	Air Mass
Arctic	Ice	Easterlies	Polar
Polar		Polar Jet	Ferrel
35º-65º	Gulf Stream	Westerlies
25º-35º		Subtropical jet	Hadley
25º		Trade Winds NE
Equator	Doldrums
5º-30º	Intertropical Convergence Zone (Monsoon Trough)		Hadley
25º	Humboldt	Trade Winds SE
25º-35º	Ocean Conveyor Belt	Subtropical jet
35º-65º		Westerlies	Ferrel
Polar		Polar Jet
Antarctic	Ice	Easterlies	Polar
Barometer. Measures air pressure
Meteorologist. Predicts the weather

A block of air with the same temperature and moisture. The boundary of an air mass is called the "front". At the boundary of two fronts, the difference in the air causes the most severe weather as the molecules try to reach equilibrium.

• Polar Cells (Arctic Air Mass). Located between 60º and the pole. Cold air from the poles descends and releases rain as it heats up and rises near the arctic circle. It creates the polar easterlies.
• Ferrel Cells. It is located between 30º and 60º north and south latitude
• Hadley Cells. Hot air from the equator rises in the doldrums and descends at latitude 25-30º north and south. The northward flow deflects to the right, due to coriolis, and becomes a westerly flow in the upper layers.
  Coriolis Effect. The rotation of the earth causes wind and water motion to deflect to the right (clockwise) of the direction of motion in the north and to the left (counter clockwise) in the southern hemisphere.
• Doldrums. A region of stagnant air near the equator between 30º north and south.
• Wastrels. The region between the Hadley cells.

Air Flow. Winds are named by the direction from which they flow.

1. Jet Stream. A current of fast moving air flowing west to east found at 10-15 km (6-9 miles) in the upper levels of the atmosphere at a speed of 56-400 miles per hour. It separates a mass of cold air in the north from a warm air mass in the south.
   • Pineapple Express. A weather system originating in the Hawaiian tropics that brings rain to the west coast of the United States. The jet stream bends to the south over the Pacific Ocean picking up warm moist air which condenses and brings waves of rain to the Pacific Northwest.
   • Siberian Express. The polar jet steam turns south and brings cold arctic air to the southern part of the United States.
2. Trade Winds. These are the lower level winds from the Equatorial Hadley cells which blow from the east to the west. The rising warm air in the tropics creates a void that is filled by air coming from higher latitudes, causing the trade winds. As the trade winds cross over Africa, they form the disturbances that form hurricanes.
3. Westerlies. Winds that blow from the west to the east in the temperate region. They are caused by the trade winds which are reflected and turn toward the poles and loop back east.
4. Easterlies. Arctic polar air moves from the poles and creates turbulence in the air when it meets a warm front moving in the opposite direction. This exchange of heat releases rain, hail and other weather phenomenon.

Ocean Temperature
Ocean temperature affects the weather by bringing moisture and changing the temperature of the air.

1. Ocean Conveyor Belt (Thermohaline Circulation). This acts as the ocean's circulatory system and distributes tropical heat around the planet. This is a 1600 year cycle that imports warm surface water from the Pacific and sinks cold deep salt water from the Atlantic near Greenland. The North Atlantic and Southern Ocean give their cold deep waters and nutrients to the Pacific and the warm surface waters, driven by surface winds, sink to replace it.
   
2. Nordic Heat Pump (Atlantic Heat Conveyor). Heat moves from the Caribbean and the tropical South Atlantic to the North Atlantic along the Ocean Conveyor belt. Heat is pumped into the Nordic sea and gives Europe warm temperatures by a transfer of heat from the sea to the air.
   
3. Gulf Stream. Warm ocean current in the north Atlantic that flows north east from Cape Hatteras near Florida, to Newfoundland and then towards Britain. It brings warm air to northern Europe, a region of the earth that should normally be cool. Global warming is affecting the gulf stream. Warm air melts the polar ice caps and sends chunks of ice into the sea. This cools the water in the north and counteracts the warming effect of the gulf stream.
   
4. El Niño and La Niña. Periodically, major changes in the global weather pattern occur because of the changes in the temperature of the Pacific ocean surface water near the coast of Peru.
   Normally, cold air from the arctic and Antarctic circle converges at the equator off the coast of Peru and heads west towards Indonesia. If it is stalled by a high pressure system over Indonesia, the cold air stops flowing and water near Peru heats up. The opposite happens with La Niña. Changes in the Peru current (Humboldt current) creates the cyclical changes in weather pattern.
   • El Niño (the son). Warm water off the coast of Peru causes excess rain.
   • La Niña (the daughter). Cold off the coast of Peru causes drought conditions.

Clouds

Clouds
Location	Name	Appearance	Composition
High	Cirrus	White filaments	Ice crystals. (6,500-23,000 feet or 2,000-7,000 meters)
	Cirrocumulus	Small Ripples
	Cirrostratus	Transparent sheets
Medium	Altocumulus	White, layered ripples	Ice crystals and water droplets. (18,000-45,000 feet or 5,500-14,000 meters)
	Altostratus	Thin, grey layer
	Nimbostratus	Thick, low, dark with rain or snow
Low	Stratocumulus	White, layered rolls	Water droplets. (6,500 feet or 2,000 meters)
	Stratus	Grey, layered sheets
	Cumulus	Vertical towers
	Cumulonimbus	Cauliflower shaped towers and anvil tops. Thunder storm, ice crystals, snow, rain
	Pyrocumulus	Produced by fires, volcano and industries when they cause the air to heat up with a lot of moisture and no wind
This is a representation of the second day of creation. God is separating the waters that are part of Himself. The lower layers will remain to form the seas and the upper layers will remain with Him. They form the heavens that cover our universe. They are not the clouds we see. Our sky is only a little representation of what it looks like if God hovered over us. Just as a baby is surrounded by amniotic fluid in the womb, our universe was born out of the waters of God.
March 25, 2000. The USA "IMAGE" satellite is the first weather satellite for space storms. It studies the effects of solar wind on the earth's magnetic sphere.

When water condenses (forms liquid) it is called different things depending on where it forms.

• Air. Clouds
• Near the Ground. Fog or mist
• Ground. Dew.
  After creation, the earth was watered by ground level clouds. Air level clouds existed after the flood.

Clouds bring much of the weather we experience. There are different formations of clouds. A cloud is a collection of water droplets or ice crystals. They are formed when water evaporates from the surface of the earth. As this moist air rises it expands and cools because of the lower pressure of the upper atmosphere. Cooler air holds less water.

Clouds are named based on their appearance, contents and the altitude (height) at which they form. They have at least one of the following characteristics in their appearance.

• Cirrus. A tuft or filament.
• Cumulus. A heap or pile
• Stratus. Forms a layer
• Nimbus. Rain bearing clouds

Clouds are named by combining the descriptions of several of these features.

Pyrocumulonimbogeostratus Megacell. This is the name we created for the cloud that surrounds God. It is a huge fire producing system of clouds that covers the earth and rains fire.
God always describes Himself as being surrounded with fire, clouds, rainbow, a blue floor and elements from the weather. He is His own gigantic weather system. Lightning and thunder come from His throne. This weather system can rain fire and stone.
What would you name it?

Smog. A cloud formation that has occurred since the twentieth century because of the burning of fossil fuels in cars and electric plants. It is a mixture of exhaust gases, dust and moisture in the air that generally forms over big cities situated in valleys. In these locations, the air is not easily refreshed by winds. The air remains trapped in the valleys because it cannot get over the high mountains. So, since these clouds of pollution can travel thousands of miles, this same problem causes pollution to be trapped in the mountains, forests and national parks.

The air quality changes because of the amount of modern pollution in the atmosphere from automobiles and factories. This caused scientists to develop a system to measure the air quality. It was necessary because ozone damages the lungs and quickly affects the breathing of people with respiratory illnesses. On hot summer days when there is no rain, the air quality becomes the most dangerous. Five causes of pollution are measured.

Air Quality Index
Color Code	AQI	Category
Green	1 - 50	Good
Yellow	51 - 100	Moderate
Orange	101 - 150	Unhealthy for sensitive people
Red	151 - 200	Unhealthy for all
Purple	201 - 300	Very Unhealthy
Maroon	301 - 500	Hazardous
Sulfur Dioxide. Over 69.4% is produced by industrial combustion. 3.7% is caused by transportation. Oxides of Nitrogen. Transportation causes 43% of this pollution. Industry causes 32%
Environmentalist. Protects the environment through public awareness and legal action
Human Rights Monitor. Protects exploited people through public awareness and legal action
Eudiometer. Measures air purity

1. Ground level Ozone (O₃). Ozone in the upper atmosphere protects the planet from ultraviolet radiation, but it is hazardous near the surface. Remember "Ozone is good up high, bad near by". Ozone is created as the pollution interacts with the sun. Therefore, levels are higher in the summer.
2. Particulate Matter (soot and dust). These are tiny solid particles suspended in the air.
3. Carbon Monoxide (CO).
4. Sulfur Dioxide (SO₂). Creates acid rain with sulfuric acid (H₂SO₄).
5. Oxides of Nitrogen (NO and NO₂). Nitrogen monoxide and nitrogen dioxide. They attack the respiratory system and damage the ozone. They create acid rain with nitric and nitrous acid (HNO₃ and HNO₂).
   
   Acid Rain. A cloud of smog produces acid rain which kills lakes and forests. Any precipitation with pH less than 5.6 is acid rain. This rain kills young fishes and insects, pine needles and strips the wax coat from a leaf. Animals who eat insects die when their food supply is gone. Fish die when their young babies do not grow up. Acid reacts with minerals in the soil and strips away the nutrients that plants need. It also releases heavy metals that are normally trapped by the soil.

Climate Change: Pollution has contributed to several global effects on our planet.

Greenhouse Gas	% Gas
Water	65%
Carbon Dioxide	33%
Methane	2%
Nitrous Oxide
Ozone

• Hole in the Ozone Layer. In 1985, scientists discovered a hole in the ozone layer. In 2003, the South Pole ozone hole was over 11 million square miles (28.5 square Km). This is an area three times larger than the United States.
• Greenhouse Effect. The warming of the lower atmosphere because of carbon dioxide and water vapor. This causes the rays of the sun to heat the earth and prevents heat from escaping back into space. The greenhouse effect has caused global warming and unpredictable climate changes.
• Greenhouse Gases. Gases that contribute to the greenhouse effect by absorbing infrared heat from the sun. Such as, water vapor, carbon dioxide (CO₂), methane (CH₄), nitrous oxide (N₂O), Ozone (O₃) and artificial chemicals like fluorocarbons. Carbon dioxide lasts for over 100 years in the atmosphere, while methane lasts for ten years. But methane can trap heat 21 times better than carbon dioxide. This causes it to create 18% of the greenhouse effect even though it is at a low concentration.
• Glaciers Melting and Polar Warming. In the past century, many glaciers have disappeared. In 2002 a shelf of ice broke off Antarctica. It is 100 miles long and 40 miles wide (160 Km by 64 Km). The glaciers of Mt. Kilimanjaro will melt by 2020. They have melted 80% since 1912. The Glacier National Park in Montana has only 30 smaller glaciers remaining from the 150 that existed in 1910. All will melt before the end of the century.
• Oceans Warming and Rising. The warming oceans change weather patterns. In a forty year period the amount of energy used to warm up the ocean was equivalent to the amount of energy that it would take to run California for 200,000 years. This energy did not come from the sun. The only explanation is that heat is being trapped by greenhouse gases. Global warming increases storms, droughts and other extreme weather events, floods low lying coasts, and drown entire island nations as the seas rise because glaciers are melting.
• Acidic Oceans. Carbon dioxide reacts with water to form carbonic acid.
• Coral Bleaching. As temperatures get above 85ºF (29.5ºC) bleaching occurs in the coral reefs and they lose algae and other organisms and die.

  The Body Earth
  Resource	Function
  Ocean Conveyor Belt. Jet stream	Circulatory Respiratory
  Tropical Forests Oceans (70%)	Respiratory
  Trees, Roots	Digestive
  Dirt (Topsoil)	Digestive
  Ozone Layer	Skin
  Crust, plates	Skeleton
  Oil	Hydraulics?

• Eroding Natural Defences. The Earth's natural defences against disaster are being eroded or destroyed.
  • Forests. Absorb the rain. Deforestation causes mudslides and soil erosion.
  • Mangroves. Protect coasts.
  • Wetlands. Soak up flood water.
• Heat Wave. By the year 2003, 1998, 2002, 2003, 2001 and 1997 were the five hottest years on the planet since record keeping began in the 1880's.
• Weather Extremes. Storms are more frequent and more powerful and occur in areas never seen. Weather temperatures are also wavering between extremes. Blizzards are stronger and longer and occur in normally warm places. Cold climates experience warmer temperatures during winter and warm locations experience severe winters as the Jet stream is pushed and pulled across the globe.
• Oxygen Imbalance. 70% of our oxygen comes from the ocean. Oxygen is absorbed when the water is cold. So, as the ocean temperature increases it depletes the oxygen and leads to the death of marine life. In addition, the main source of oxygen is gone. Where does this oxygen go? It is probably trapped in the excess carbon dioxide which causes global warming.

As this information becomes more political than scientific, proponents offer up information that is designed to ignore the warming trend and stop efforts to start making personal changes before it is too late.

• Glaciers Melting. The best evidence that the planet is experiencing an overall warming trend that may be irreversible is the continued melting and disappearance of old glaciers.
• Previous Temperature Spikes. Those against global warming point to previous cooling trends as natural cycles from which the earth will rebound. They fail to mention that none of these cycles removed ice fields that are thousands of years old, or millions of years old (evolution). Two catastrophic volcanic eruptions around 535 AD and 1815 AD also caused a cooling trend. One in 1783 caused a cooling trend in Europe.
• Data Mismanagement. Some climate change scientists have been caught trying to suppress climate cooling data. They do the same thing in the creation and evolution debate by suppressing inconvenient data. In the case of climate temperatures the answer may lie in where temperature collectors were placed. Those in the cities registered warmer temperatures and those in the rural areas were cooler. These might indicate that scientists need to find a better way to measure real overall temperature trends, not the immediate effects of industrial activity.

Precipitation
Palmer Drought Index
Color Code	Rain fall	Category
Maroon	-4.0 or less	Extreme drought
Red	-3.0 -3.9	Severe drought
Orange	-2.0 -2.9	Moderate drought
White	-1.9 - 1.9	Near normal
Light Green	2.0 - 2.9	Moist
Green	3.0 - 3.9	Very Moist
Dark Green	4.0 +	Extremely Moist
Precipitation falls from clouds to the ground in several forms. Rain. Water or other liquid Snow. Small ice crystals Sleet. Icy Rain Hail. Chunks of ice When precipitation falls in a large volume or at a fast rate it creates a storm. A persistent lack of precipitation over time creates drought. The Palmer index measures water balance by considering supply, demand and loss. That is precipitation, transpiration and evaporation and run off.
Ten inches (25 cm) of snow can contain 0.10 to four inches of water (.25-10 cm). With strong winds, ten inches of snow contains about one inch of water.
Hyetometer, Udometer. Measures rainfall

Storms
Tropical Cyclones. A low pressure system originating in the tropics with thunderstorms and a circulation of winds near the Earth's surface around the low pressure. They are classified by the wind speed. The Atlantic storm season occurs between June 1 and November 30.
They form in the region that is 5º to 30º latitude for these reasons.

1. Moisture. They are close enough to the warm waters of the equator to gain moisture.
2. Rotation. Only at that location does the rotation of the earth cause the air mass to get a spin. The radius of the earth in that region changes sharply. Therefore, the wider end spins at a slower rate. The difference in spin at both ends of the cloud causes the air mass to rotate.

There are three categories of cyclones based on the wind speed.

1. Tropical Depressions. Have winds of less than 17 metres a second or 38 miles per hour (mph).
2. Tropical Storms. Have winds between 17 and 33 metres a second or 39-73 mph.
3. Hurricane. A tropical storm in the Atlantic with wind speed over 33 metres per second, 119 kph or 74 miles per hour. They form in waters in the ocean that are about 80º between latitude 5º and 30º and move west then north. Hurricanes that are south of the equator spin in a clockwise direction, while those in the north spin in the opposite direction.
   
   Storm Names. They are named by the region in which they originate. Hurricanes in the Pacific Ocean are assigned a different set of names than Atlantic storms. Tropical storms are given names in alphabetical order and alternate between masculine and feminine names. This list rotates every six years for each regional group.
   
   High speed tropical storms which originate in other oceans also have different titles.
   • Hurricane. North Atlantic Ocean, North Pacific Ocean east of the dateline, and the South Pacific Ocean east of 160ºE. (July - October).
     » Pacific Hurricanes. Around September, they form in the warm water off Central America and move west into the Pacific and rarely make landfall. These have a different set of names.
   • Typhoon. Northwest Pacific Ocean west of the dateline. (July - October)
   • Cyclone. Southwest Pacific Ocean west of 160ºE or Southeast Indian Ocean east of 90ºE, North Indian Ocean and in the Southwest Indian Ocean. (December - May).
   • Willy Willies. Australia. (November - March).

Saffir-Simpson Scale of Hurricane Strength					Fujita Scale (Tornado Wind Speed) Old Scale New   #   Mph Kph Mph F0 40-72 64-116 65-85 F1 73-112 117-180 86-110 F2 113-157 181-253 111-135 F3 158-206 254-331 136-165 F4 207-260 332-418 166-199 F5 261-318 419-511 > 200 F6 > 318 > 511 - The 2007 new scale is called the enhanced Fujita scale. F12 is the speed of sound.	A cyclone is a storm with winds that swirl around a central eye. Wind direction is counter clockwise (west to east) in the Northern Hemisphere and clockwise (east to west) in the Southern Hemisphere.
Estimates Property Damage and Flooding by Category
#	Mph	Kph	Surge	Damage
5	> 155	> 249	18 ft	Most roofs, curtain walls, all trees
4	131-155	210-249	13-18	Curtain walls, small home roofs
3	111-130	178-209	9-12	Mobile homes destroyed
2	96-110	154-177	6-8	Doors, windows, roof material, mobile homes
1	74-95	119-153	4-5	Trees, unanchored mobile home
-	35-73	56-118	0-3	Tropical Storm. Flooding, trees
-	< 35	< 56	< 3	Tropical Depression. Flooding
Jupiter. The great red spot on Jupiter is caused by a permanent hurricane. It is 340 years old and 2 to 3 times wider than earth.
Saturn. A storm 5000 miles (8000 km) wide, swirling at 350 mph (560 kph) with clouds between 20-45 miles (30-75 km) high was discovered at the south pole in 2006. It has a central eye and eye walls like a hurricane.
Mars. Dust storms can cover over two thirds of the planet and last for months.
On March 25, 2004 a tropical cyclone, Catarina, formed in the south Atlantic for the first time since satellite observations began. It struck Brazil on March 28. There has been only one other cyclone in the south Atlantic, and it stayed out at sea.
Carpenter. Builds homes, furniture, wood structures Mason. Builds structures using stone, bricks, cement Plumber. Installs pipes and ducts to carry air and water Electrician. Installs electrical systems and wiring					Architect. Designs houses and buildings Interior Designer. Decorates with color, furniture Sanitation Engineer. Garbage management Civil Engineer. Designs roads and bridges

Funnel Cloud. A funnel cloud is a vortex of condensed water vapor and air spinning at high velocity.

Tornado or Twister. A huge, swirling vortex of rapidly rotating air that contacts the ground. It is caused by a rotating storm system rather than by local wind rotation. It is called a funnel if it does not contact the ground. When it forms on the water it is called a water spout. They are formed during a thunderstorm.
The storm is rated on the Fujita Scale. While hurricanes may be hundreds of miles wide, a tornado may only be 150 feet wide and move across the surface at about 0-60 mph for about five minutes causing damage to a path up to 100 miles (160 km).

Tornado Alley. The region in the central United States where tornadoes are common. The land in the Great Plains in northern and central Texas, Oklahoma, Kansas, and Nebraska is very flat, and allows cold dry polar air from Canada to meet warm moist tropical air from the Gulf of Mexico. Tornadoes are formed by the thunderstorms along the front between these two air masses.

Hazardous Weather Alerts
Alert	Meaning
Warning	Conditions are occuring or will occur in 24 hours
Watch	Conditions are favorable for development in 24-36 hours
Advisory	Conditions are occurring, imminent or likely
Severe Weather Statement	Important information on the progress of the weather
Outlook	Hazardous weather may occur in several days

Some of the tornadoes in the southern states such as Florida, South Carolina, and Georgia are caused by hurricanes.

• Land Spout. A funnel cloud that touches the ground.
• Water Spout. A funnel cloud over water.
  It's Raining Cats and Dogs. While there is no evidence that it ever rained cats and dogs, these waterspouts and tornadoes can carry small objects for miles. These clouds have been known to carry fish, frogs, flounders, geese, ducks, grasshoppers, mussels, crayfish, snails and jellyfish. Would they be called zoonimbus clouds?
• Dust Devil. A tiny, harmless twister that is only a few inches or a few feet tall. It is formed by hot air on sandy surfaces or pavements and it is not connected to a storm cloud. It generally disturbs only dust and leaves and may reach speeds of up to 70 mph (96 km) and may last for less than a minute to several hours.
• Haboob. A dust or sand storm with strong winds that carry small particles of dirt or sand into the air.
• Firewhirl. A rotating column of fire and smoke created by intense heat from a forest fire or volcanic eruption.
• Derecho. A line of widespread, fast moving thunderstorms, with damaging straight line winds over hundreds of miles. The extensive damage may initially look like a tornado. But it lacks the circular pattern of damage caused by a tornado.
• Microburst. Strong winds without the rotation. They are narrow, focused down drafts from a thunderstorm that are shaped like an upside down funnel.
• Blizzard. A winter storm with winds of 35 mph (48 km) or more with considerable falling or blowing snow reducing visibility to less than one quarter mile for three or more hours.
• Monsoon. The heavy rainfall and seasonal reversals of the wind direction along the shores of the Indian Ocean and southern Asia, especially in the Arabian Sea. It blows from the southwest during one half of the year and from the northeast during the other.

The Seasons
The seasons are the result of the 23.45º tilt of the Earth's axis and angle at which the sun's rays strike the earth and the location of the sun, not our distance from the sun. This affects the number of daylight hours and the angle of the rays of the sun as they strike the earth and the amount of rainfall.

• Tilt of the Earth. The tilt causes rays of the sun to strike the Earth at a more direct angle during summer. This concentrates the rays in a smaller area and creates more heat. These hot conditions are best for creating thunderstorms and the rainy season. In the winter the rays strike at an angle and are spread out over a larger area causing cooler temperatures.
• Length of the Day. In winter the days are shorter, so there is less energy to heat up the earth. In summer the days are longer and more energy heats up the earth.
• Rain Belt. Hot days creates thunderstorms in the tropical rain belt that extends between the tropic of Cancer and Capricorn. It creates one long rainy season at the tropics and two wet and two dry seasons on the equator as the rain belt passes over twice a year, as it moves north and then south. The region in between may have one long and one short rainy season.
• Mediterranean Climate. A special climate zone appears on the western coasts of large continents that are near large bodies of water. These conditions occur from December to February in the northern hemisphere and April to September in the south. They have rain with cool, mild, wet winters and dry summers. e.g. San Francisco, Los Angeles, Santiago, Adelaide, Perth, Capetown, Alexandria, Naples and Greece.

There are six seasons which are created by the action of the sun affecting temperature and rain. This mix of seasons is dependent on the heat cycles in three basic locations, the northern hemisphere, southern hemisphere and the equator.

The Six Seasons			Month Northern Hemisphere Equator Southern Hemisphere Pole Temperate Tropics Tropics Temperate Pole - Solstice - Equinox - Solstice - (low) Temperature Rain Belt Temperature (low) 3 March Night Winter Dry Dry Wet Wet Dry Summer Day Equinox Day Spring Autumn Night 4 April Wet Dry 5 May Wet 6 June Solstice Summer Dry Winter 7 July 8 August Dry 9 September Dry Wet Equinox Night Autumn Spring Day 10 October Wet 11 November Wet 12 December Dry Solstice Winter Dry Summer 1 January 2 February Countries Alaska Russia, Europe India, Caribbean S. Asia Argentina, Australia North America, China Israel, Africa Africa, South America, Chile
Temperate Climate	1	Autumn
	2	Winter
	3	Spring
	4	Summer
Tropical Climate	5	Wet (rainy, green, monsoon)
	6	Dry Cool
		Dry Hot
Follow the Sun. When the sun is directly overhead, there are long days, hot summers, high humidity or rainy season.
Solstice. Sun is farthest north (summer solstice) or south (winter solstice) and hot weather occurs. Equinox. Sun is directly over the equator. Day and night are equal length. This occurs in spring and autumn.

Weather Instruments Meteorologists use many types of instruments to measure temperature, water vapor, pressure and wind speed and direction.

• Thermometer. Measures air temperature.
• Rain Guage. Measures the amount of rain that as fallen over a period of time.
• Hygromometer. Measures humidity (amount of water vapor in the air).
• Sling Psychrometer. Measures relative humidity with two thermometers.
• Barometer. Measures air pressure. A rising barometer means sunny and dry conditions, while a falling barometer means stormy and wet conditions.
• Wind Vane. Shows the direction from which the wind is blowing.
• Anemometer. Measures wind speed.
• Compass. An instrument that finds direction.

  Weather Satellites and Observatories

  Country Satellite Type Region 1 United States (NOAA, Nasa, DoD) GOES-East Geos North, South America GOES-West Geos North America, Pacific Ocean QuickScat Polar Ocean NOAA-15, 16, 17, 18, TIROS-N, ATN, DMSP Polar America NPOESS Polar America 2 Europe Meteosat; MSG Geos Europe, Asia, Africa, Indian and Atlantic Ocean MetOp-A Polar 3 India Insat Geos India 4 Russia Geostat (GOMS) Geos Russia Meteor 3-5, 2-21 Polar Russia 5 China FENG-YUN (FY-2B) Geos China FENG-YUN(FY-1,FY-3) Polar China 6 Japan GMS, MTSAT (Himawari) Geos East Asia, West Pacific, Australia 7 Korea COMS Geos Korea NASA. National Aeronautics and Space Administration. NOAA. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Eumetsat. European Organisation for the Exploitation of Meteorological Satellites TIROS. Television Infrared Observation Satellites. ATN. Advanced TIROS - N. DMSP. Defense Meteorological Satellite Program. (DoD) NPOESS. National Polar-orbiting Operational Environmental Satellite System. Newer system replacing NOAA, DMS and TIROS by 2009-2012.

• Doppler Radio. Measures the activity of small particles in the air by analyzing reflected signals bouncing off the particles. Particles coming toward the system show a higher frequency than particles moving away from the system. So the system can show density and direction and speed of the particle flow. It also shows weather front boundaries.
• Dropsondes. Dropped from airplanes by a parachute, they fall through the air collecting and recording data such as humidity, pressure, wind strength and temperature.
  » Radiosonde. Launched by weather balloons, they give simultaneous measurement and radio transmission of weather data.
  » Rocketsonde. Radiosonde launched by a rocket.
• Weather Satellite. Satellites track large scale air movements. They measure mostly visible and infrared wavelength. Visible views see day and night. Infrared views show cloud patterns at night. Newer satellites measure many environmental signals.
  • Geostationary (GEOS). High earth orbiting satellites that observe continents from a fixed location.
  • Polar. Low earth orbiting satellites, orbiting north to south that do remote sensing to measure temperature, wind speed, ozone, humidity, moisture and wildfires.
• Weather Surveillance.
  • Weather Station. Record data at fixed earth locations.
  • Weather Buoys. Record weather data at fixed locations, usually in the water.
  • Ships and Planes. Mobile weather stations.
    » Hurricane Hunter Fleet. Aeroplanes that fly into the eye of a storm to gather data.
  • Weather Balloon. Measures weather conditions high up in the atmosphere reaching altitudes as great as 90,000 ft (27,400 m).

Geography

Earth Sciences

Geography is the study of the land. Oceanography is the study of the oceans. Geology is the study of rocks and minerals. Meteorology is the study of the atmosphere.

The Earth is only 6000 years old. Its surface is 70.9% water and 29.1% land.

Earth Statistics

Population : Annual growth rate = 1.3%   » 2007 = 6,602,224,175 (July)   » 2002 = 6,233,821,945 Physical Characteristics   » Weight = 5,940 x 1018 metric tons.   » Circumference at the equator (40,066 km)   » Diameter at the equator (12,753 km)   » The earth orbits the Sun at (66,700 mph), (107,320 km per hour)   » The earth orbits the Sun every 365 days, 5 hours, 48 minutes and 46 seconds Surface Area (510,066,000 km2)   » Land Area (148,647,000 km2) 29.1%   » Water Area (361,419,000 km2) 70.9% Ocean Water Volume (1.37 x 109 km3)   » Polar Ice Caps (3.3 x 107 km3)   » Glaciers (2 x 105 km3)   » Lakes (1 x 105 km3)   » Rivers (1.2 x 103 km3)   » Precipitation (2.2 x 105 km3)

There are imaginary lines on the earth that help us to locate any place on the globe.
Lines of Latitude. Imaginary lines around the earth running east to west are called lines of latitude. The most famous is the equator which runs around the center of the earth.
Each 1º latitude at the equator is 69 miles (111 km).

1. Equator - 0º Line at the center of the earth.
2. Tropic of Cancer - 23.5º North of the equator.
3. Tropic of Capricorn - 23.5º South of the equator.
4. Arctic Circle - 66.5º North of the equator.
5. Antarctic Circle - 66.5º South of the equator.
6. North and South Pole. Top and bottom of the globe.

Lines of Longitude. Those running North to south are called lines of longitude. They are used to determine time.

1. Prime Meridian - 0º
2. International Date Line - 180º. Time decreases as you travel east of this line.

	The Biggest in the World Category Place Size (km2) Continent Asia 44,579,000 Island Australia 7,617.930 Country Russia 6,592,846 Desert Sahara 3,500,000 Mountain Everest 8850m (29035ft) Ocean Pacific 155,557,000 Sea South China 2,974,600 Lake Caspian Sea 371,000 River Nile 6,825 km
The map shows the continents, oceans, air flow that affects weather, tectonic plates and the ring of fire around the Pacific ocean
Tectonic Plates There are seven large plates and twenty small ones Faults Continental and Oceanic Plates a Pacific b Eurasian c North American d African e Australian-Indian f Antarctic h South American See another map. Plate Location g Nazca West coast of South America i Juan de Fuca West coast of the USA j Scotia Below South America k Cocos West coast of Central America l Philippine Philippines m Arabian Arabia, Sinai Peninsula n Indian India o Caribbean Central America and the Caribbean Sea Faults on the ring of fire. Java Trench - Curve near Indonesia Aleutian Trench - Alaska to Russia Marianas Trench - Mariana Island     Challenger Deep - Deepest point (11,000 meters) Faults at the junction of the plates. San Andreas Fault - Pacific plate. California Nojima - Japan East Pacific Rise - Nazca and Pacific Mid-Atlantic Ridge - African and North American Cascadia Subduction Zone - West USA Fathometer. Measures under water depth with sound Bathymeter. Maps contours of deep oceans

Land	Water
The earth is divided into seven large bodies of land called continents. Smaller areas are called islands. Continents of the World 2002 Statistics # Continent Size 103 km2 Total Countries People (Million) Highest Mountain 1 North America 24,256 23 483 McKinley 6194m (20320ft) 2 South America 17,819 12 342 Aconcagua 6959m (22831ft) 3 Africa 30,065 53 778 Kilimanjaro 5963m (19563ft) 4 Europe 9,938 43 732 Elbrus 5633m (18481ft) 5 Asia 44,579 47 3,674 Everest 8850m (29035ft) 6 Australia (Oceania) 7,687 14 31 Puncak Jaya 4884m (16023ft) 7 Antarctica 13,209 0 0 Vinson Massif 4897m (16066ft) Eurasia. The joined continents of Europe and Asia Politician. Rules countries and makes laws Major Islands of the World # Island Size km2 1 Australia 7,617,930 2 Greenland 2,175,600 3 New Guinea 792,500 4 Borneo 725,500 5 Madagascar 587,000 Major Deserts of the World # Desert Location Size km2 1 Sahara North Africa 3,500,000 2 Arabian Middle East 1,000,000 3 Gobi China 500,000 4 Patagonian Argentina 260,000 5 Great Victoria Australia 250,000 6 Great Basin United States 190,000 Tallest Mountains of the World # Mountain Location Height (M) 1 Mauna Kea Hawaii 10203m (33476 ft). If measured from its base in the sea. 2 Mount Everest Nepal 8850m (29035ft) 3 Qogir Pakistan 8611m (28250ft) 4 Kangchenjunga Nepal 8586m (28169ft) 5 Lhotse Nepal 8501m (27920ft) 6 Makalu 1 Nepal 8462m (27765ft)	There are five oceans. 70.9% of the surface of the earth is covered with water. salt water (97%), fresh water (3%) Oceans of the World # Ocean Size (103km2) (km6 miles2) Deepest Point (Feet) 1 Pacific (155,557), 64 Mariana Trench (35,827) 2 Atlantic (76,762), 33 Puerto Rico Trench (30,246) 3 Indian (68,556), 28 Java Trench (24,460) 4 Southern (20,327), 7 South Sandwich Trench (23,736) 5 Arctic (14,056), 5 Eurasia Basin (18,456) Oceanographer. Studies oceans Thalassometer. Instrument for measuring tides Seas of the World # Sea Size (km2) Location 1 South China 2,974,600 Vietnam 2 Caribbean 2,515,900 West Indies 3 Mediterranean 2,510,000 South Europe 4 Bering 2,261,100 Russia, Alaska 5 Gulf of Mexico 1,507,600 Texas, Mexico 6 Arabian 1,498,320 Saudi Arabia 7 Sea of Okhotsk 1,392,100 East Russia 8 Sea of Japan (East Sea) 1,012,900 Korea, Japan 9 Hudson Bay 730,100 North Canada 10 East China 664,600 North Taiwan 11 Andaman 564,900 West Thailand 12 Black 507,900 North Turkey 13 Red 453,000 Egypt, Israel Marine Biologist. Studies sea life Rivers of the World # River (km) Location 1 Nile 6,825 Africa 2 Amazon 6,437 South America 3 Chang Jiang (Yangtze) 6,380 Asia 4 Mississippi 5,971 North America 5 Yenisey-Angara 5,536 Asia 6 Huang (Yellow) 5,464 Asia 7 Ob-Irtysh 5,410 Asia 8 Amur 4,416 Asia 9 Lena 4,400 Asia 10 Congo 4,370 Africa 11 Mackenzie-Peace 4,241 North America 12 Mekong 4,184 Asia 13 Niger 4,171 Africa
Scuba. Self Contained Underwater Breathing Apparatus

Pangea

Geography Project: Build Pangea or the New Jerusalem land forms
Cartographer. Map maker

The continents of Australia, India, South America, Africa, and Antarctica, existed together as a single land floating on aquifers (underground rivers and lakes) before the flood. There were no large bodies of water like our oceans and at that time there was no rain. A mist used to come from the earth and water the plants.

According to the Bible, during the flood the foundations of the earth burst open and water came out. It was during this time that the continents probably broke apart. The Bible says that 100 years later the land was divided. People separated according to language. The earth probably was drifting apart. Native Americans could have easily gone from the Middle East to the American continent.

The earth seems to have tilted approximately 4,000 years ago, at about the same time as the flood. It still has a wobble, suggesting that it was struck with great force. Science might explain this tilting as a result of an impact from an asteroid, and Creationists might explain the tilting by the action of God. At the time of the flood, God might have sent a great asteroid that struck the earth and broke the foundations and weakened the land along the lines of the plates and broke apart into the continents. Water from below rushed up to the surface and flooded the earth.

Evolutionists call this super continent Pangea. It is made from Gondwana in the south and Laurasia in the North. Pangea broke up into Gondwana (or Gondwanaland) which included South America, Africa, Antarctica, India, and Australia, Florida and part of southwest Europe. Laurasia is made up of North America, Europe and Asia.

Australia is now moving away from Antarctica and is moving north towards Asia at about six centimetres per year and will be a part of Asia in about 40 million years.
But the Second Coming will change all this. In about 1000 years, the Earth will be recreated and will probably be one land floating on the sea. Australia will not crash into China.

Earthquake Classification			Scientific Observation
Strength	Magnitude	Frequency
Great	9+	1 / decade
	8+	1
Major	7 - 7.9	17
Strong	6 - 6.9	134
Moderate	5 - 5.9	1319
Light	4 - 4.9	13,000
Minor	3 - 3.9	130,000
Very Minor	2 - 2.9	1,300,000
The Largest Earthquake. The Earth is recovering from a wobble. By applying mathematical calculations that are based on causing a wobble in a spinning toy, it has been shown that this wobble occurred about 4000 years ago. Around the same time as the flood. The wobble was probably caused during the flood by an asteroid striking the earth and breaking the crust. This broke the tectonic plates, tilted the earth and caused huge tsunamis.
Seismologist. Studies earthquakes
Seismometer. Measures earthquake intensity

Earthquake
Earthquakes are caused by the shifting plates under the surface of the earth or by the movement of magma (melted rock that comes from volcanoes). Most plates travel at speeds of between 1 and 15 cm per year. When they move by each other, they cause an earthquake.

Fault Lines. A break in the Earth along which movement occurs at the plates.

Plate Tectonics. The theory that relates most of the geologic features near the Earth's surface (Mountains, earthquakes and volcanoes) to the movement and interaction of thin plates of rock. There are four basic plate movements.

• Converging Boundary. A region where two plates collide.
  • Deformation. Two continental plates crash together but there is no volcanic activity. The region forms mountains. e.g. Himalayas.
  • Subduction Zone. A boundary where one plate slides under another. Usually the lighter continental plate slides over the heavier oceanic plate. This is a zone where volcanoes are prevalent and mountains form. e.g. Indonesia.
  • Oceanic-Oceanic Convergence. Two oceanic plates collide and one slides under another producing volcanoes under the sea that create island arcs. e.g. Marianas Trench.
• Transverse Boundary. Plates slide by each other and create cracks called a fault. e.g. San Andreas Fault
• Spreading Boundary. Plates move apart. The region has a lot of geothermal activity. e.g. Iceland.

Tsunami. A large tidal wave caused by an underwater earthquake exceeding magnitude 7.5, underwater landslide, volcanic eruption, impact from a meteorite, or the impact caused by large rocks falling from a mountain into the sea. Land slides from volcanic islands are the most likely of these.

Liquefaction. It occurs when soil behaves more like a liquid than a solid when it is saturated with water and loses it's strength and stiffness due to an earthquake or rapid increase in water pressure.

Volcano
The source through which molten rock flows out to the surface of the earth in the form of lava. Volcanoes are a conical hill or mountain built around a vent that connects with reservoirs of molten rock below the surface of the earth. They are built by the accumulation of the particles that erupt from them. These are lava (melted flowing rocks), bombs (crusted over ash flows), and tephra (airborne ash and dust).
Lava exits the volcano through a central vein or through side fissures. Sometimes the lava solidifies in the side veins and form dikes. These support and strengthen the volcano. There are four types of volcanoes.

Volcano
Magma. Ejected Particles. Lava. Bombs. Tephra. Other Flows. Pryoclastic flow. Mud flows.
Olympus Mons, on Mars, is the tallest volcano in the solar system. It is a shield volcano that rises 24 km (78,000 feet). The base is more than 700 km in diameter.
There are about ten active volcanoes every day around the world.
Volcanologist. Studies volcanoes

• Cinder Cones. They have a bowl shaped crater at the top. They are built from small fragments of lava that solidify and fall as cinders around the vent to form a circular or oval cone. (e.g. Parícutin in Mexico)
• Composite Volcanoes (Stratovolcanoes). Large, steep, symmetrical cones built of alternating layers of lava flows, volcanic ash, cinders, blocks, and bombs and may rise as much as 8,000 feet (2440 meters) above their bases. (e.g. Mount St. Helens, Mount Fuji, Mount Hood. The upper 1200 feet (366 meters) of Etna.
• Shield Volcanoes. They are built almost entirely of fluid lava that forms a flat, gently sloping cone. (e.g. Etna, Mauna Loa and Kilauea)
• Lava Domes. They are formed when the lava is too viscous to flow any great distance. So the lava piles up at its vent and the surface cools and cracks as lava from below is pushed out. (e.g. Mount Pelée in Martinique)

Volcano products.

• Magma. A river of melted rocks below the surface of the earth. It creates the flow of lava when it breaks the surface of the earth. The type of rock that creates the lava will affect the rate of the flow. Basalt lava and other extrusive rocks are very fluid and tend to form shield volcanos. Intrusive rocks do not flow easily and tend to form lava domes.
• Pyroclastic Flow. A fast moving, flowing avalanche of hot ashes, gases, rocks and debris which often accompany explosive eruptions. This often causes a mud flow as is rushes along the ground at speeds as high as 100 miles per hour (160 Km).
• Lahars. Corrosive rivers that form when rain mixes with the ashes. They remove vegetation and harden like concrete.
• Caldera. A crater with a depression caused by the collapse of a volcano.
• Ring of Fire. The line of volcanoes that circles most of the Pacific Ocean. A region where 75% of the Earth's active and dormant volcanoes are located. The ring appears to be on the edges of Pangea.
• Hot Spot. A hole in the tectonic plate through which lava flows. (e.g. Hawaii, Yellowstone) There are about thirty hot spots. Yellowstone is the only one on land.
• Supervolcano. A large volcano with the potential to spread ash thousands of miles and blot out the sun. Yellowstone is on a caldera that is the site of a magma chamber of a supervolcano. It is the largest volcano in the world. It is 80 km long and 40 km wide and 8 km deep. (50 x 25 x 5) miles.
• Subduction Zone. The region where one tectonic plate passes under another. The friction melts the rocks and creates lava and can cause megathrust earthquakes.

Geology: The Earth

Creation Day 3 (Tuesday)

Everything was still covered by water. On the third day God separated the water from the earth. He created the land and the trees. This includes grass, flowers, fruits and vegetables.

Scientific Observation	Scientists actually observed this! Surtsey Island. In November 1963, this island formed from a volcanic eruption and had mature beaches within months, not millions of years.
Turbidity Currents. These under water mud flows show that the layers in the geologic column can form in minutes or days, not millions of years as evolutionists say. They prove that the layers of the geologic column could have been formed by the flood.
Geologist. Studies the earth and rocks Archaeologist. Studies old buried objects Spelunker. Explores caves

Geology

The study of the earth and minerals.

Rocks
Scientists recognize three types of rocks.

1. Igneous. Crystallize from magma.
   • Extrusive (Volcanic Rock). Fine grained rock. Forms lava which flows. It is also called volcanic rock. (Basalt, Andesite, Dacite, Rhyolite)
   • Intrusive. Coarse grained rock. It is too thick to flow. (Gabbro, Diorite, Granodiorite, Granite)
2. Metamorphic. Forms when existing rock is changed by temperature, pressure or chemicals.
   • Foliated. Slate, schist, gneiss.
   • Non-foliated. Quartzite, marble
3. Sedimentary. Form by erosion of preexisting rock. This sediment turns into rock. This type of rock was made by the flood as water eroded existing rock and soil and mixed with the bones of the dead creatures.
   • Clastic. Shale, mudstone, siltstone, sandstone, breccia, conglomerate.
   • Chemical. Limestone, dolostone, evaporites.
   • Biologic. Coal, chert. Formed from decaying living materials.
4. Genesis Rock. Creationists recognize a fourth type of rock which does not fit any of the categories above. Granite is a rock which existed at creation. It cannot be formed by any of the three classifications. When granite is heated and cooled, it forms rhyolite. Therefore, any existing granite could not come from melted magma.

Granite - Genesis Rock
Scientific Experiments Time	Dr. Robert Gentry studied granite rock and discovered that pleochroic haloes trapped in the rock were formed in less than three minutes. Probably 1.5 minutes. Therefore, he concluded that granite changed from a liquid to a solid form in less than three minutes.
Granite rock did not cool over millions of years. It cooled in three minutes! Evolutionists are hoping that they can find another explanation for this. Because, if granite is reheated it forms another type of rock called rhyolite when it is cooled. So all the granite we see is in its original form on the day it was made.

How did the sedimentary rock layers form? The creationists claim that all we see is a result of the flood. Evolutionists claim that all these layers were formed over trillions of years.

The discovery of turbidity currents changed this. They are only formed under water when large layers of mud slide across each other like an avalanche, building up layers in hours or days that scientists thought took millions of years.

Precious Stones
Gems are rare and so they are expensive. They are also prized because of their beautiful color. Diamond is made from carbon, the same element as coal. But, the diamond forms a crystal structure while coal is a random formation of the element. There are three sources of natural gems (animal, plant and minerals):

Animal sources. Organic source of pearl, coral and ivory.

1. Pearl. It is made from fresh water or salt water oysters. A pearl starts out as a bit of dirt or garbage or something foreign that is annoying the oyster. The oyster responds by secreting a substance to encase the piece of dirt. It eventually grows into a round substance we call pearl. The response of the oyster reminds us of how our immune system cells responds to a foreign object in our body.
2. Ivory. It is the bone from elephants and rhinoceras tusks.
3. Coral. It is calcium carbonate. It is formed from the calcified skeletons of sea creatures that grow in formations resembling the branches of a tree.

Plant sources. Organic source of amber, diamond and jet. Petrified wood is fossilized wood that has had its organic matter replaced by agate.

1. Amber. It is the fossilized resin of ancient pine trees which trapped seeds, leaves, feathers and insects and over time the resin hardened into a soft, warm, golden gem, known as amber.
2. Jet. It is black, shiny fossilized coal. When trees fell into the swamps the water logged trunks sank and compressed. In fresh water, soft jet was formed. Salt water formed hard jet.
3. Diamond. Made from carbon arranged in a cubic structure, hardness of 10. Carbon is the same element that makes coal and the graphite in pencils. It is the hardest known substance, four times harder than corundum. Carbon has other allotropes (different forms of the same chemical created by a different internal physical structure).
   » Graphite. A hexagonal structure of carbon. Iron black, dark gray, black, steel gray color, hardness is 1.5 to 2.
   » Chaoite. A hexagonal structure of carbon. Dark grey color, hardness is 1 to 2.
   » Fullerite. Black, brown color and 3.5 hardness.
   » Lonsdaleite. The heat and stress of a meteorite impact transforms the graphite into a hexagon shaped diamond, brownish black, light brownish yellow color and hardness is 7 to 8.
4. Petrified Wood. There are three types. Silicified wood has a wood grain pattern. Palm wood, from palm trees, looks different depending on the angle of the cut. It may be spotted, or have lines. Massive silicified wood has so much wood replaced with silica that a wood grain pattern cannot be recognized.
   • Petrified Dinosaur Bone. Quartz replaces the cellular structure in fossilized bone.

Minerals. They are made from chemicals (atoms or molecules) which harden to form a crystal. There are several groups of mineral gemstones.

Gem	Gem Family	Color	Sample
Sapphire	Corundum	Blue
Ruby	Corundum	Red
Diamond	Carbon	Clear
Emerald	Beryl	Green
Aquamarine	Beryl	Blue-green
Alexandrite	Chrysoberyl	Blue, red
Amethyst	Quartz	Lavender
Citrine		Yellow, orange
Ametrine		Purple, yellow
Rose quartz		Pink
Onyx	Chalcedony (Quartz)	Black
Chrysoprase		Green
Chalcedony		Blue
Agate		Blue stripe. Many colors
Sardonyx		Red stripe
Garnet	Garnet	Dark red
Tanzanite	Garnet	Dark Blue
Iolite	-	Blue - purple
Peridot	Olivine	Golden green
Spinel	Spinel	Red
Topaz	Topaz	Orange
Tourmaline	Tourmaline	Blue
Turquoise	Turquoise	Sky blue
Jade	Jade	Green
Opal	Opal	Rainbow
Pearl	-	Pink
Palm Wood	-	Brown, Spotted

1. Beryl. Be₃Al₂(SiO₃)₆. Beryl is normally colorless and the impurities give the different varieties its color.
   • Emerald. green beryl Be₃Al₂Si₆O₁₈.
   • Aquamarine. blue
   • Beryl. red and golden versions
   • Goshenite. colorless
   • Morganite. pink
   • Heliodor. greenish yellow
2. Corundum. Al₂O₃
   • Ruby. red color caused by chromium
   • Sapphire. usually blue, but can be any color
3. Olivine. (Mg, Fe)₂SiO₄
   • Peridot. green, sometimes called chrysolite
4. Quartz. SiO₂ comes in different shades of purple. Formed from one crystal or microcrystals:
   • Amethyst. purple
   • Citrine. yellow - orange
   • Milky Quartz. cloudy white
   • Smoky Quartz. brown to grey
   • Rose Quartz. pink to reddish pink
   • Rock crystal. clear
   • Tiger's Eye. Brown with gold yellow band
   • Chalcedony. Formed from several microcrystals.
   Chalcedony, Jasper, Flint, Cert and crystalline quartz are all types of quartz.
5. Topaz. Al₂SiO₄(F, OH)₃ Colors are clear, yellow, orange, red, blue and green
6. Garnet. A₃B₂(SiO₄)₃
   • Almandine. Fe₃Al₂(SiO₄)₃ - reddish brown to brown
   • Pyrope. Mg₃Al₂(SiO₄)₃ - dark red
   • Spessartine. Mn₃Al₂(SiO₄)₃ - orange, pink, brown
   • Uvarovite. Ca₃Cr₂(SiO₄)₃ - green
   • Andradite. Ca₃Fe₂(SiO₄)₃ - brown, black, green
   • Grossular. Ca₃Al₂(SiO₄)₃ - colorless, orange, green
7. Zircon. ZrSiO₄
8. Feldspar. A group of aluminosilicate minerals that contain calcium, sodium, or potassium. They make up more than 50 percent of the Earth's crust.
9. Other Gem Families. Spinel, Tourmaline, Chrysoberyl, Opal, Diamond, Jade, Peridot, Turquoise, Lapis Lazuli

Fossil Fuels and Hydrocarbons (Oil and Natural Gas)
Oil is called "black gold" because it is a mined resource that is highly prized. Most of our energy (81%) is produced by the three main sources of fossil fuels. These deposits of fuel are created from old trees and animals. Their existence points to their rapid burial and mass storage in fixed places by the catastrophic flood. But the bible also indicates that the region called Babylon (Iraq) had open tar pits before the flood.

Other sources of fossil fuels are heavy oils, tar sands, oil sands and oil shale, but they are more expensive to produce. The largest deposits are in Canada and in the Orinoco province of Venezuela.

Nuclear Energy. This is renewable, but it is not suitable for vehicles and the problems of radioactive waste and disposal are enormous. The contamination lasts for 24,000 years.

Green Fuel. These are friendly to the environment. They produce no known pollutants and are renewable. While other sources of energy are not practical for operating vehicles, or are seasonal, solar energy is clean, renewable, not labor intensive to produce and should be cheap. Most alternative fuels are designed to run mobile systems and take energy to produce. Only solar energy and electrical battery technology (stored energy) can run green power plants efficiently now.
Thoughts to Consider. How friendly is some of this "green" fuel?
If were rely heavily on geothermal and ocean thermal energy will we cool down or heat up the oceans and affect the thermohaline cycle, weather patterns and the marine ecosystem?
How does growing and burning biomass deplete the soil, pollute the air and drive up the cost of basic foods as farms compete to grow crops that give a higher profit?

Biofuels and Alternative Fuels used for automobiles are mostly made from high cellulose perennial grasses and plant material like switchgrass, miscanthus, HDSR megaflora tree, algae, rice and corn. They will produce pollutants because they are carbon based. Ethanol and vegetable oil are some of the most popular fuels used. They are useful for removing waste, but not as a permanent solution for mobile fuel.
» Megaflora Tree (HDSR). This is also called HDSR because of its high density and short rotation. It is a broad leaf tree that grows very big, very quickly. This tree grows to the full size of 60 feet (1829 cm) in 3 years and regrows from the stump after harvest. There is no need to plant again. It grows in poor soil and harsh climate and helps to reclaim damaged soil. So it is a very excellent source of biomass for fuel which does not compete with food crops.

The United States consumes 25% of the global oil supply. Yet it produces only 2% of the oil and is only 2% of the global population. The world will run out of this source of energy by the middle of the century.

Sources of energy used to power stationary and mobile systems.

Sources of Energy				Systems
Classification	Product	Source	Problem	Homes	Cars	Plants
Fossil Fuels	Gasolene (38.1%)	Petroleum (crude oil, heavy oil, tar sands, oil sands, bitumen, oil shale)	Pollution, global warming, limited supply, not renewable	---5	Y	Y
	Diesel			---5	Y	Y
	Fuel Oil			-2---	Y	Y
	Petroleum (38.1%)	Liquified Petroleum Gas (LPG) (C3H8)		---5	Y	Y
	Natural Gas (22.9%)	Natural Gas (Methane) (CH4)		-2-5	5	Y
	Liquid Natural Gas (LNG). Compressed Natural Gas (CNG)			-2-5	Y	Y
	Coal (23.2%)	Coal mining		-2-5	-	Y
	Kerosene	Petroleum		12-5	-	Y
	Garbage dump	Natural Gas (Methane) (CH4)		-2-5	5	Y
	Industrial waste	Sawdust, nut shells, plant waste		-2-5	5	Y
	Wood	Trees	Volume	-2---	-	-
Biofuels	Dung (poop)	Dried cow dung, manure burned like wood	Supply	-2---	-	-
	Biogas	Cow Power. Manure makes methane	Supply	-2-5	Y	-
Biofuels "Green Fuels"	Ethanol	Corn, sugar cane, beets (CH3CH2OH)	Food supply, volume, weather	---5	Y	Y
	Biomass (2.9%) Cellulose Ethanol	Hay and other high cellulose perennial plant. Algae, switchgrass, miscanthus, megaflora (HDSR), rice		---5	Y	Y
	Methanol (M85)	Wood alcohol (CH3OH)		---5	Y	Y
	E85	85% corn ethanol and 15% gasolene		---5	Y	Y
	Biodiesel	Vegetable and animal oils and fat	Volume	---5	Y	Y
	Cooking oil	Recycled cooking oil	Volume	---5	Y	-
	Whale oil	Whale. Used in the 1800's before kerosene	Volume	12---	-	-
	Candle	Wax.	Volume	1----	-	-
Nature "Green Fuels"	Solar Photovoltaics (.006%)	Sun. It is the biggest nuclear power plant creating light and heat which can be converted to energy. Heat can be stored	Darkness	123456	5	Y
	Solar Thermal mirrors		-	123456	5	Y
	Wind (0.1%)	Using wind with speed greater than 12 mph (19 kph)	Weather	123456	5	Y
	Hydroelectric (2.7%)	Water height differences	Drought	123456	5	Y
	Geothermal (0.3%)	Natural steam or heat sources. Hot springs, geysers	Regional	12-456	5	Y
	Aquafer	Natural cold water sources to cool buildings	Regional	3	-	N
	(OTEC) Ocean thermal	Ocean thermal energy conversion. Ocean layer temperature differences of 20ºC (36ºF)	Regional	123456	5	Y
	Hydrogen Fuel cells	Hydrogen + Oxygen = Water + energy	Supply	123456	Y	Y
	Microbial Fuel cells	Soil bacteria + garbage + dirt = Soil + heat	Supply	1--5	N	N
	Water (Hydrogen)	Water + solar energy = Hydrogen fuel cell + Oxygen	Supply	12345	Y	Y
	Sound	God used this energy to create the world	Science research
Stored Energy	Generator	Petroleum	Volume	1234-	5	Y
	Battery	Secondary source of energy that can be charged by any primary source. This may solve the disadvantage of mobility and availability of energy from green fuels	Volume, size	1234-	Y	-
Nuclear	Uranium Atoms (8.1%)	Nuclear reaction	Radioactive waste	123456	5	Y
Home Energy 1 Light 2 Cooking, Heating 3 Cooling 4 Electrical appliances 5 Stored energy 6 Power plant

Green Fuels. These are renewable, friendly to the environment and do not produce pollution.
Greenhouse Gases. Gases that trap heat. Water vapor, carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide, ozone and fluorocarbons
Photovoltaic Cell. A photovoltaic cell makes electricity from light, mostly red light dislodging electrons from silicon.
Solar Thermal Mirrors. Curved mirrors concentrate the rays of the sun and heat a tube of liquid which creates steam and moves turbines to produce electricity.

Energy Production.
Two main processes converts energy to electricity by driving turbines.
Energy Source heat water drive turbines electricity
Energy Source mechanical rotation drive turbines electricity
Turbine. A rotary engine in which the kinetic energy of a continuous stream of moving fluid is converted into mechanical energy by turning the shaft attached to rotating blades. Water, steam, wind and gas can cause this rotation.

Energy Source		Type of Energy	System	Conversion Path
Sun	Light	Radiant	Solar Panels (Photovoltaic cells)	Electricity
	Light	Radiant	Photosynthesis	Sugar Alcohol Heat	Turbines Electricity
	Heat	Thermal	Solar Thermal	Stored heat
	Heat	Kinetic (Motion)	Wind	Mechanical energy
Ocean	Heat	Thermal	Ocean Thermal	Heat
Earth	Heat	Thermal	Geothermal	Heat
Earth	Gravity	Potential	Hydroelectric	Mechanical energy
Earth	Chemical	Electromagnetic	Fossil Fuels	Chemical Heat
Atom	Chemical	Electromagnetic	Fuel Cell	Mechanical energy
Atom	Atomic	Strong force	Nuclear	Heat

Fossil Fuel Independence (Alternative Fuels).

Old Supplier		Green Energy Supplier		Consumer Energy Demands	Green Homes
Nuclear Fossil Coal Gas Petroleum Diesel		Geothermal Ocean Thermal Solar Biofuels Biowaste Power Plant Wind Hydroelectric Chemical Battery Steam		Transportation Light Cooling Appliances Home Heating Emergency Generator Energy Storage Cooking		Battery Solar Panels Fuel Cell

Problems. There are several problems with these new forms of energy. The ultimate system depends on a good battery design and powerful, efficient solar-electric vehicles. Power suppliers must also convert to solar, wind and steam energy.

• Mobile Systems. The biggest problem is finding a good source of energy for mobile systems and a system to distribute them. Current engine designs are built for fossil fuels supplied by gas stations. Electric cars get their supply from fossil fuel power plants.
• Transitional Systems. Transitional automobile systems must process biofuel mixtures and solar/battery power. Generators must also switch to solar and biofuel energy instead of fossil fuels.
• Darkness. Energy can be generated at night by all systems except solar. Solar and wind energy can be stored in the form of chemical energy or heat and regenerated at night as steam.
• Inefficient. Biofuels are inefficient to produce, using more energy than they generate. If they are produced by cheap solar or wind energy then the trade off will be worth it.
• Not Green. Ethanol, Biofuels and biowaste also contribute to green house gases such as carbon dioxide, so they are not long term solutions but they can make us independent of oil. However, instead of burying the waste in land fills or the ocean, using them as energy could be a better way to dispose of them.
• Not Clean. There is no such thing as "clean coal" or "clean nuclear". They are more expensive and dangerous to create and the toxic waste must be disposed of and managed forever.
  Coal produces green house gases and the "clean" technology proposes burying the gas underground instead of in the air. This could create a future problem that we have not evaluated. No one knows what happens to this gas. Coal also produces soot and coal ash which is buried in landfills or kept in ponds. This ash has toxic heavy metals lead, mercury and arsenic which contaminate ground water.
  Nuclear produces radioactive waste that lasts thousands of years.

Alternative Fuel Infrastructure.

Oil	Germ		Ethanol Plant (Fermentation)	CO2
Corn		Starch		Ethanol
Bran		Dry Distiller's Grain (High Protein)

Ideally, the best solution is a combination of solar and battery technology. Practically, unless businesses can engineer a constant flow of income from these systems, they will not develop them. Unless they can build in planned obsolescence or keep the service station model they will not support a system that will one day give the owner total independence from the energy producers. Therefore, they will invest in biofuels but not solar. Biofuels use a lot of energy in their production. Some estimate that they use more energy than they produce!. The best way to make this work is to use solar energy for processing. Manufacturers also remove the expensive bran and germ before fermenting the starch.

What if?

Since oil, coal and diamonds are carbon products created under pressure, is it possible that the oil fields have diamonds? And does the presence of diamonds indicate oil near by?

Energy Development. The key to our future energy needs is the development of reliable solar energy. Therefore, one major problem to resolve is the development of small batteries that can store large amounts of energy for long periods of time or long distances and can be recharged in minutes. One other possible breakthrough is the development if solar panels that can be shaped and colored so that they are pleasing to the eye and blend in with existing roofing material. Portable Emergency Energy. Why are there no solar generators?

	Terrestrial
Hydrosphere (Aquatic)			Subterranean (Hypogean)
	Conrad
Subterranean
Mohorovic Discontinuity

Ecosystems
Our world has many different worlds or biomes. There are oceans, deserts, rain forests, snow and ice, bodies of fresh water and the salt water ocean. Many different types of plants and animals were created to live in these different places. What makes them different is the temperature and the amount of water, sunlight and nutrients. With warm average temperatures and lots of water more life can be supported. With light, photosynthesis and plant growth occurs, attracting more life. The biomes exist in three zones.

• Terrestrial (Land or Epigean). Above ground.
• Subterranean (Hypogean). Underground systems including caves and aquifers.
• Aquatic (Water). Fresh water and marine (sea). The open ocean zones are based on many criteria, resulting in many names for the same region.
  • Light. Division is based on amount of sunlight that penetrates: Epipelagic, mesopelagic, Bathypelagic. This affects photosynthesis and the ability of plants to grow.
  • Depth. Division is based on depth which affects pressure: Euphotic, Dysphotic, Aphotic.

Ecosystem		Temperature	Water	Light	Features and Location
Desert		Hot, cold	Dry	Sunlight Epigean	North Africa, Arabia, Australia, Central and South America
Tundra		Cool	Dry		Barren and treeless land. They are like deserts in cold climates. They are located in the northern hemisphere near the arctic ocean
Scrub		Dry summer	Wet winter		Florida
Grassland, Savannah		Windy	Dry		Mostly grass areas between deserts and forests. They are found in central Africa, South America, India and Australia
Coniferous Forest		Cool	Dry		Also called taiga or boreal forest. They are a continuous belt of coniferous trees in North America and Eurasia
Deciduous Forest		Cool	Wet		Regions where leaves change into many colors and lose leaves in autumn. Europe, Eastern North America
Temperate Rain Forest		Cool	Wet		Heavy rain. Areas with evergreen conifers and broadleaf deciduous trees on the western edge of north and south America
Tropical Rain Forest		Warm	Wet		Jungles with broadleaf evergreen trees, vines, found around the region of the Equator at 10º North and 10º south latitude below 3000 feet
Rhizosphere		Cool	Fresh	Hypogean	The region where soil interacts with roots
Karst		Cool, humid	Fresh		Formed by the underground erosion of rocks such as limestone, marble dolomite, gypsum and halite. It includes caves, sinkholes, springs, aquifers, underground streams
Anchialine		Cool, humid	Fresh, salty		Inland system near coastal groundwater in caves with no surface connection to the sea but affected by marine tides. Australia (Bundera sinkhole), Christmas Island
Ground water		Cool	Fresh		Aquifers and ground water in the water table
Lakes, rivers, ponds		Cool	Fresh	Intertidal Zone (Littoral)	Shallow to deep. Flowing or still in land pools of water
Wetlands, swamps		Humid	Fresh		Shallow, warm wet land with large trees
Temperate ponds		Cool	Fresh		Shallow, inland pools of water
Mangrove Forests		Warm	Shallow, salty, fresh		Found mostly in the Indo-Malayan region. They catch sediment and alluvial materials promoting sediment build up in tidal areas
Estuaries		Warm - cool			A semi-enclosed coastal body of water that has a measurable salinity gradient from its freshwater drainage to its ocean entrance
Mud Flats		Warm - cool	Fresh, salty		Mud and sandy mud exposed between the extreme high tide and extreme low tide marks. They form from the deposition of mud in sheltered tidal water, particularly in estuaries where there is a large sediment supply
Tidal Marsh		Warm - cool	Fresh, salty		Marine intertidal areas with soft substrate, colonized predominantly by grasses. They occur only where there is regular flooding and nearby sources of fine sediment
»	Salt marsh		Salt
»	Coastal fresh		Fresh
Coastal Ocean		Warm - cool	Shallow, salty		10% of ocean area closest to land with 90% of species
»	Intertidal Zone	Warm - cool			Tidepools. Submerged in high tide and dry at low tide
»	Coral reef	Warm			Equator, tropics, shallow water near land
»	Kelp Forests	Cold		Neritic Zone (Open Water) (0-200 m)	Brown algae growing in clear, shallow, cold coastal water
»	Fast Ice	Cold			Ice attached to the land
»	Pack Ice	Cold			Floating drift ice assembled in a single mass found in the Arctic and Antarctic
»	Benthic	Cool			Shallow, sea bottom not exposed to air but exposed to tidal currents
»	Continental Shelf	Warm - Cool	Shallow		Gentle slope to 200 m, soft sediment, photosynthesis
Pelagic Zone		Warm	Shallow, salty	Sunlight Zone	Epipelagic zone (Euphotic zone) (0-200m 660 ft)
»	Open ocean	Warm			Warm water, plants, light, photosynthesis
»	Deep Sea	Cool	Deep, salty	Twilight Zone (1000 m)	Mesopelagic zone (Dysphotic) (200-1000 m 660-3,300 ft). High pressure, low light, no photosynthesis, no plants
»	Polar Ocean	Frigid			Found near the arctic and antarctic circles
»	Aphotic Zone	Cold 2ºC	Deep, salty, sulfur	Midnight Zone (6000 m)	Bathypelagic Zone (Aphotic) (1000- 4000 m 3300-9800 ft) Cold, dark, bioluminescence, high pressure (3 tons/inch2)
»	Abyssal zone	Cold			4000-6000m
Cold Seeps		Cold			Cold sulfide rich ocean water
Benthic Zone					Ocean Floor and Trenches
Conrad Discontinuity (7.5-8.6 Km)				Hadal Zone (11000 m)	Seismic waves travel at a different speed above and below
Hydrothermal Vents		Hot			Dense, cold waters in the deep trenches (6000-11000 m). Cracks in the ocean floor where hot, sulfide rich ocean water meets cold water and creates precipitates
(Moho) Mohorovic Discontinuity		32 Km [20 miles]		The boundary between the lower crust and the upper mantle. 75 Km thick at the continental shelf and 5 Km thick at the mid-ocean ridges
Kola Peninsula. The deepest bore hole is over 12 Km deep (12262 m). Water slows the speed of seismic waves. Perhaps the Moho is evidence of deep oceans or saturated rocks.
Florist. Arranges flowers for beauty				Farmer. Grows plants for food. Read about organic gardening here

Trees and Flowers

Botany

The study of plants.

People need trees to provide the air we breathe, clothes, the food we eat and to build houses. Their flowers give us beauty and fruit, and they provide shade from the sun.

In the day light trees breathe in (inhale) carbon dioxide and breathe out (exhale) oxygen. The process is reversed at night. Animals only breathe in oxygen and exhale carbon dioxide. So plants and people need each other to provide good air.

People can make Vitamin D from the sun, but we cannot use it to provide the amount of food we need. But plants do this for us. Plants take energy from the sun, water and minerals from the earth to make fruits, seeds and nuts.

Fruits and flowers are food to animals but they are the reproductive system of plants. It is the flowers that eventually produce fruits and seeds. These seeds grow into new plants. The parts of a plant are:

• Root. The root is a part of the digestive system of the plant. It drinks water and minerals that the plant needs to make food.
• Trunk and branches. They are like the skeleton of a plant. They support the tree and contain tubes through which water travels from the root to the leaves.
• Leaf. Plants use the leaf to make food from the sunlight, to breathe and to evaporate water. So, a leaf functions as the digestive, respiratory and urinary system of a plant.
• Flower. A flower is the reproductive system of the plant. In most plants they contain both the male and female parts.
• Seed. A seed is the egg of the plant. It is produced from the flower.
• Fruit. A fruit is like the baby of a plant. It is produced only when the female flower is fertilized. It contains the baby and the food that the baby needs to grow. A seed does not eat the fruit, but it uses the fruit to attract animals. When the animals take the fruit, they take the seeds and scatter them so that a new plant can grow in another place.

God created some very interesting plants.

Weird Plants		The Walking Banyan Tree The largest banyan tree has 1775 trunks. The Thomas Edison Museum in Florida has the third largest banyan tree which is over 400 feet wide. (122 meters) A forest of one tree. The banyan tree is a fig tree that grows in Southeast Asia and India. It has multiple branches that grow down into the ground so that they appear to look like another tree. Therefore it is called the walking Banyan tree. As the branch grows, it send down shoots that eventually reach the ground. They become so big that they look like a tree trunk. So the tree spreads by creating these new trunks from its branches.
Corpse Plant	It has a giant flower 6 to 9 feet tall found in Sumatra. The flower blooms every 1 to 3 years and dies after just 2 days. It smells like rotting garbage, rotten eggs or a dead animal from up to half a mile away.
Male and female tree	Most trees have flowers that contain separate male and the female parts in close proximity. These trees can reproduce by themselves. But dioecious trees grow as a separate male and female tree. The ginkgo and date palm are examples of these trees.
Carnivorous plants	Some plants like the venus flytrap and the pitcher plant eat meat! They lure insects to their death with pretty colors and a sweel smell. The venus flytrap has leaves that are shaped like a jaw and they snap shut when an insect walks in. The pitcher plant has a lid that can be closed when it traps an insect. mmmm soup!
Male trees give more pollen. Most cities are planted with them		Botanist. Studies trees and plants

Farming (Organic)
This is the science of managing crops without using artificial seeds, fertilizers and pesticides. Adam was the first organic farmer. God gave him the task of caring for the animals and the garden and to farm the land.

• Soil Preparation.
  • Test Soil. Find missing nutrients, pH and soil type (loam, silt, sandy or clay).
  • Remove Weeds. Rake, water and remove the weeds every week for four weeks.
    Soil Solarization. This is a method to kill harmful fungi, bacteria, nematodes, weeds, and certain insects. It works in warm climate and with small gardens. Cover the moist soil with transparent plastic film and allow the sun to heat the soil for four to eight weeks.
  • Loosen Soil. Aerates. Easier for the roots to go through.
  • Soil Amendments. Add missing ingredients to improve composition and texture.
    » pH: Plants need a neutral pH. Most fruit 6.5 best (5.5-7.2). Blueberries (4.8-5.2)
  • Organic Compost. Fertilizer. Add in the fall. It must be totally decomposed or it will take nitrogen from the soil to continue the process.
    Commercial organic fertilizer can contain decomposed animals.
  • Worms. If they do not come naturally, then add them.
  • Plant Legumes First Year. Fixes nitrogen to the soil.
  • Mulch. Keeps moisture in.
• Fertilizer ("Plant Food"). A method of applying plant nutrients to the soil.
  • Water and Carbon dioxide. Plants breathe in carbon dioxide and drink water.

    Plant Nutrients
    Name			Source	Use
    1	C	Carbon	Air	Starch, cells
    2	H	Hydrogen	Water	Starch, cells
    3	O	Oxygen	Water	Starch, cells
    4	N	Nitrogen	Soil, urea, green manure	Leaf, stem
    5	S	Sulphur	Potash	Chlorophyll
    6	P	Phosphorous	Potash	Fruit, root
    7	K	Potassium	Soil	Metabolism, fruit
    8	Ca	Calcium	Soil	Cell wall
    9	Mg	Magnesium	Soil	Chlorophyll
    Micronutrients
    10	Fe	Iron	Soil	Chlorophyll
    11	Zn	Zinc	Soil	Photosynthesis
    12	Mb	Molybdenum	Soil	Hormones
    13	Mn	Manganese	Soil	Vitamins
    14	Bo	Boron	Soil	Fruit, seed
    15	Cu	Copper	Soil	Enzymes
    16	Co	Cobalt	Soil	Nitrogen fixation
    17	Cl	Chlorine	Soil	Photosynthesis

  • Vermicomposting. Make compost by using red earthworms to break down garbage. Worms also leave other particles "castings" that add nutrients. But it does not create temperatures that are high enough to kill pathogens. Use for food, paper and yard waste. It takes six months to break down organic materials if they are not shredded.
  • Aerobic Composting. Addition of dead plant material, seaweed, coffee grounds and filters, vegetable food scraps, manure, news paper, saw dust, moisture in a pile to heat and rot in the sunshine. Piles should be no bigger than 3x3x3 feet (90x90x90 cm). Turn every two weeks to add air to the inner layers. It takes from three to four weeks to two years to decompose depending on how much work you do in shredding the materials and aerating it. Temperatue should be between 104-131ºF. Add more grass clippings and green vegetation to increase the rate.
    » Carbon: Dried leaves, straw, hay, sawdust, or shredded paper.
    » Nitrogen: Grass clippings, hay, legumes, manure, ammonium nitrate (urea).
    » Phosphorous:
    » Sulphur: Acid rain, gypsum
    » Calcium and Magnesium: Dolomitic limestone, gypsum
    » Potassium: Wood ash, greensand, granite meal
    » pH: Alkaline (raise ph) (lime, wood ash). Acid (lowers pH): sulfur, pine needles, peat moss.
  • Green Manure (Cover Plant). A legume that is planted then put pack into the soil to rot. Adds nutrients and prevents erosion.
  • Manure. Waste from animals. Use organically fed, grass fed, free range vegetarian animals. Modern animal feed is made from dead animals and is fed to vegetarian animals.
    Rendering. The process of using dead animals, pets, discarded meat, road kill, manure, sawdust and garbage to make feed for animals.
  • Mulch. A blanket of materials that keep mositure from evaporating.
  • Fallow. Do not grow anything on the soil. Decaying plants, rocks and soil will add nutrients.
  • Chemical Fertilizer (NKP). They provide the top three nutrients: Nitrogen, Potassium (Potash) and Phosphorous. But it should not be used in an organic garden.
  • Bone Meal and Blood Meal. Ground up animal parts.
    The fine dust may contain prions which cause CFJ (mad cow disease).
• Pest Control.
  • Herbal. Garlic and hot pepper spray teas. Organic cornmeal kills fungus.
  • Natural Predators. Lady bugs kill aphids.
  • Crop Rotation. Disrupts the natural cycle of pests that feed on specific plant families.
  • Diatomaceous Earth. Finely crushed fossils of freshwater and sea animals that look like broken glass. They cut the outer shell of insects. It contains silicon dioxide, aluminium oxide,iron oxide, calcium oxide, magnesium oxide. And trace amounts of copper, strontium, titanium, manganese, sodium, vanadium, boron and zirconium.
    It affects ants, aphids, bollworm, salt marsh caterpillar, cockroach, cornworm, earwig, house fly, fruit fly, lead perforator, leaf hopper, lygus bug, mite, pink boll weevil, red spider mite, slugs, snail, termites, Japanese beetle (grub stage) and many other insects.
    Breathing fine dust particles is not good for humans.
  • Fence. Keeps large animals away.
• Irrigation. Method of watering the plants. Water in the early morning.
  • Rainfall. A soaking rain every 10-14 days, otherwise must be done artificially.
  • Drip (Trickle). Water is delivered at the root drop by drop.
  • Sprinkler (Overhead). Sprays or sprinklers.
  • Flood.
  • Subirrigation. Watering from below. Hydroponics grow plants in nutrient rich water.
  • Other. Center Pivot and Lateral Move.
  • Aquifer Mist. Adam had an automatic sprinkler system. Every morning a mist would come from the ground water aquifer to water the earth.
• Crop Rotation. Changing the crops grown in a field in a planned sequence that takes advantage of the nutrients used or created by each crop and the effect of each crop on the soil.
• Planting. Plant twice as deep as the seed is wide.

Crop Rotation.
This does not mean that the entire field should be planted with only one crop every year. The field can be divided into different sections that grow a variety of crops, but each section must be rotated every year. Legumes make nitrates, cereals use nitrates so they should be rotated in sequence. Rotate crops by the type of family, nutrient use and depth of root system (deep or shallow).

Rotation Method		Crops
		Year 1	Year 2	Year 3	Year 4	Year 5	Year 6	Year 7
Cereal	Three Year	Rye	Barley	Fallow	Rye (winter wheat), barley (spring oats)
	Four Field	Wheat	Barley	Turnips	Clover	Wheat	Barley	Turnips
Vegetable Crops	Two Field	Beans	Corn	Beans	Corn	Beans	Corn	Beans
	Five Field	Grain, corn	Root	Leafy	Legume	Fallow	Green manure	Grain
	Other	Bean, corn	Leafy	Root	Green manure	Bean	Leafy	Root
	Seven Year	Bean, corn	Root	Cabbage	Peas	Tomato	Pumpkin	Fallow
		Bean, peas	Corn	Peppers	Green manure	Carrot	Legume	Fallow
Fruit Crops	Fruit	Fruit do not deplete the soil easily. But cover crops can be rotated near them and compost added. Too much nutrients may promote leaf growth instead of fruit. The first flowers are usually male. Pollination must occur for the female flower to produce fruit. So a fruit farm requires bees or butterflies.
Plant Families: Legumes (beans), cereal, grain, pumpkin, tomato, tarot (root), cruciferous (leafy). Cabbage Family. Broccoli, brussels sprouts, cauliflower, kale. Green Peppers. They are immature peppers of the colorful varieties. Scallion (Green Onion). Immature onions.

Companion Planting.
While some plants can be planted near each other, other plants should not be planted close to each other or rotated in the same field in successive years.

Crop Incompatible Beans Onion, beet, kohlrabi, sunflower Broccoli Grapes, lettuce Cabbage Tomato, dill, strawberry, beans Carrot Anise, dill, caraway Corn Tomato Cucumber Potato, sage Lettuce Broccoli, fava bean, rye, wheat, barley Onion Beans, peas, sage, rue Irish Potato Squash, pumpkin, zucchini, sunflower, onion, carrot, cucumber, tomato, peas, turnip, pepper, eggplant, melon, pear Tomato Potato, cabbage, corn, kohlrabi, fennel Grapes Blackberry, peach, collard, kale, radish, peas, cabbage, beans, broccoli, brussels sprouts, cauliflower Strawberry Cabbage Dill Cabbage, carrot Fennel Most plants Wormwood Most vegetables Irish Potatoes. They should not be planted where tomatoes, peppers or eggplants grew previously. Sweet Potato. The enemies are not known. Sample Field Design Bed Major Crop Companion Crop 1 Cabbage Celery, spinach, chard, lettuce, beet, grapes, mint, thyme 2 Potato Corn, cabbage, broccoli, basil 3 Corn Beans, peas, squash, pumpkin, watermelon 4 Beans Corn, peas, cucumber, broccoli 5 Pepper Carrot, cucumber, lettuce, oregano 6 Tomato Carrot, cucumber, asparagus, basil 7 Spinach Zucchini, celery, parsley 8 Zucchini Lettuce, squash, peppers 9 Onion Carrot, pepper, beet, garlic 10 Melon Strawberry, all bush berries 11 Strawberry Grapes, blueberry, raspberry 12 Grapes Strawberry, blueberry, melon

Crop Compatible Beans Most herbs and vegetables, eggplant, pepper Broccoli Beans, cucumber, tomato, potato, celery, leek, onion, garlic Cabbage Celery, beet, onion, spinach, chard, celery, leek, thyme, sage, mint Carrot Peas, lettuce, onion, tomato, leek, pepper, sage Cauliflower Onion, kale, chinese cabbage, sage, thyme, peppermint Corn Potato, beans, peas, squash, pumpkin, cucumber, melons Lettuce Carrot, bean, onion, radish, strawberry, cucumber, collard Onion Cabbage, lettuce, beet, carrot, pepper, cucumber, tomato, squash, strawberry Spinach Fava beans, strawberry, pea, celery, corn, cabbage, eggplant Peas Beans, corn, carrot, radish, turnip, cucumber Pepper Bean, carrot, onion, tomato, oregano, basil, spinach Potato Beans, corn, cabbage, brussels sprout Tomato Carrot, onion, cucumber, asparagus, pepper, marigold, mint, basil, borage Zucchini Lettuce, peppermint, peppers, corn, spinach, silver beet, squash, tomato, parsley Berries Grapes, lettuce, spinach, onion, tansy, nasturtium Grapes Strawberries, bush berries, hyssop Melon Corn, radish, nasturtium Basil Pepper, tomato, cauliflower, broccoli, beans, cabbage, kale, collard, brussels sprout Henbit Most plants. Insect repellant, chive Marigold Most plants Mint Cabbage, tomato, beans, broccoli, cauliflower Tarragon Most vegetables Thyme Cabbage, carrot, onion, sage, rosemary Bush Berries. Raspberry, blackberry, blueberry, gooseberry, currants. Your Garden Plant an organic garden with at least three different fruit and vegetables and save seeds to plant next year. e.g. Cantaloupe, pumpkin, tomato, bell pepper. If you can care for your garden maybe you can care for a pet

Microgreens. Plants can be grown in soil and harvested in small trays indoors near well lighted windows in 7 to 14 days. Microgreens are the stems, seed leaf and first set of true leaves of the seed.
Biblical Farming Principles. These principles are based on the Plan of Salvation.

• Fallow (Land Sabbaths). Every seven years, the land must lie fallow for one year (no planting done). In year fifty the land must also have rest. So Sabbath years are year 7, 14, 21, 28, 35, 42, 49 and 50.
• Mixed Gardens. A field must only be planted with one crop.
• Fruit. Fruit cannot be given to God until the fourth year of growth after the biblical rules are used.

Experiment

Grow a bean in a cup. If you split open a bean you will see a tiny baby tree inside. It has a leaf and roots.

Imagine

The Tree of Life in heaven grows on both sides of the river of life. Maybe it grows like a walking banyan tree. This tree grows twelve kinds of fruit. There is no other tree like this on the earth. Every month it bears a different fruit. Its leaves are edible and maybe its trunk smells nicer than the Allspice tree. Maybe it has a different smell every month.

The Sun, Moon and Stars

Creation Day 4 (Wednesday)

God created space on the second day and filled it with the planets in our solar system on the fourth day. The Bible says "He made the stars also". This could mean that He made the stars that same day, or it is simply saying that He made the stars that we can see from our earth. I believe that He made them on that day. Because He is so incredibly awesome!

Planet		Distance		Diameter (Km)	Mass x10 22 (kg)
		AU	106Km
	Sun	0	0	1392000	19891 x10 4
	Mercury	.387	57.9	4879	33.02
	Venus	.72	108.2	12104	486.85
	Earth	1	149.6	12756	597.36
»	Moon			3575	7.348
	Mars	1.52	227.9	6805	64.185
The Asteroid Belt
	Ceres	2.766	-	975x909	.095
	Jupiter	5.2	778.3	142984	189900
	Saturn	9.54	1427.0	120536	56846
	Uranus	19.22	2869.0	51118	8683.2
	Neptune	30.06	4497.1	49528	10243
Kuiper Belt
	Pluto	39.50	5900.0	2390	.125
	Charon	39.40	5900.0	1207	.151
Orcus		39.4	-	1500	?
Ixion		39.6	-	822	?
Varuna		43.0	-	1060	?
2003 EL61		43.3	-	1960	.42
Quaoar		43.4	-	1250	.1-.26	2005 FY9		45.79	-	1800	-
Scattered Disc
	Eris 2003 UB313	68	18000	2600	?
Oort Cloud
Sedna		502.0	13500.0	1180-1800	.17-.61
1 astronomical unit (AU) is the distance of the earth from the sun or 149,597,870.691 Km. (92,955,807 miles)
Geography Project: Build a three dimensional landscape of the Moon or Mars.
Cosmologist. Studies the solar system. Astronomer. Studies the stars and planets.
Telescope. Instrument for viewing distant objects

Astronomy

The study of the stars and planets and other objects in space.

Solar System

Enter Your Weight	What is your weight? It depends on the weight of the planet where you are standing. Enter your weight on earth and click on another planet to see what your weight would be.	New weight on
Engineer. Uses science and technology to design and build systems

A planet is an object that orbits a star and has enough gravity to maintain a spherical shape. It must not be a star or the satellite of another planet and it must dominate its vicinity.

Planets in our solar system are divided into these groups:

1. Terrestrial ("Rocky"). Those like the earth are small, dense and rocky with a solid surface.
2. Jovian Planets ("Gas Giant"). Those like Jupiter which are large, made of gases or fluid, lighter and colder with no solid surface. They all have rings.
   "Ice Giants". They have less Hydrogen and Helium and more rock and ice.
3. Dwarf Planet. Smaller planets. e.g. Ceres, Pluto, Charon, Xena.
   "Ice Dwarfs". Objects, like Pluto, whose composition is primarily ice.

Exoplanets. Planets found outside our solar system.

Moon (Natural Satellites)
Many of these planets have other natural satellites or objects (moons) that orbit them. Some of these smaller moons have only been discovered since 2002.
Our Moon is 384,403 Km (238,857 miles) from the Earth. It has a diameter of 3476.2 km and weighs 7.347673 x 10²² kg. It takes 27 days, 7 hours and 43 minutes to go around the earth.
Only Triton and Titan have an atmosphere.

Planet		Year	Day	Natural Satellites (Moons)		Rings	First Space Vehicle
Mercury		87.97 days	59 days	0	0	0	Mariner 10 (March 29, 1974)
Venus		224.7 days	243 days	0	0	0	Venera 1 (February 12, 1961)
Earth		365.22 days	23 hrs. 56 min.	1	Moon (Luna)	0	Sputnik (October 4, 1957)
»	Moon		27 days 7 hrs. 43 min.				Luna 1 (January 2, 1959)
Mars		686.98 days	24 hrs. 37 min.	2	Phobos, Deimos	0	Mariner 4 (July 14, 1965)
Jupiter		4,332.7 days	9 hrs. 55 min.	63	Ganymede, Callisto, Io, Europa, Himalia, Amalthea, Thebe, Elara, Pasiphae, Metis, Adrastea, Carme, Lysithea, Sinope, Anake, Leda	4	Pioneer 10 (March 3, 1972)
Saturn		10,759 days	10 hrs. 39 min	56	Titan, Rhea, Iapetus, Dione, Tethys, Enceladus, Mimas, Janus, Epimetheus, Hyperion, Phoebe, Prometheus, Pandora, Helene, Atlas, Telesto, Pan, Calypso	14 named	Pioneer 11 (September 1, 1979)
Uranus		30,685 days	17 hrs. 8 min.	27	Titania, Oberon, Umbrial, Ariel, Miranda, Puck, Portia, Juliet, Belinda, Cressida, Desdemona, Rosaline, Ophelia, Bianca, Cordelia	11 named	Voyager 2 (January 24, 1986)
Neptune		60,190 days	16 hrs. 7 min.	13	Naiad, Thalassa, Despina, Galatea, Larissa, Proteus, Triton, Neried. Five other moons were announced in 2004.	9 named	Voyager 2 (August 24, 1989)
Pluto		90,800 days	6 days	3	Charon, S/2005P1, S/2005P2	0	-
Sedna		11,487 years	20-50 days	0	2003 VB12 was found on November 14	0	-
Apollo 11 (July 20, 1969). Neil Armstrong was to first human to walk on the Moon. Edwin Aldrin was the second. Echo 1A was the first communications satellite. It was launched in 1960. Sputnik 2 (November 3, 1957). A dog, Laika, was launched and it became the first modern creature in space. Neptune Rotates on its side. Chariot 1 (922 B.C.). Elijah became the first creature from Earth to travel to space in a vehicle. (2 Kings 2: 11) But Enoch and Moses travelled before him either by vehicle or by whole body transportation with clouds (rapture) like Jesus